2.1 Culture as a semiotic sign
Before talking about relationship between sign and culture, Umberto Eco needs to be introduced. Umberto Eco (1932) is an Italian semiotician, novelist, philosopher and literary critic. He is best known for his historic mystery novel “The Name of the Rose”. This novel is an intellectual mystery combining semiotic in fictional, biblical analysis, medieval studies and literary theory. Eco was very influential in developing approaches in the contemporary semiotics, his ideas can be found in a book “A Theory of Semiotics”. Eco’s main activity is to study entire culture and to provide an inside into a huge range of objects and events as signs. One of the author’s objectives is to observe the limits of the future of semiotic research and to suggest a unified method for approaching dissimilar development. In his research, Eco came up with the view that semiotics should interpret all cultural processes as processes of communication. He defines semiotics as a discipline developing from “natural” phenomena to more “culturally” elaborated systems. These systems include: tactile communication, paralinguistics (linguistic pictograms), musical codes, formalized languages, written languages, unknown alphabets, secret codes, natural languages, visual communication and rhetoric.
Umberto Eco states that every cultural entity becomes a semiotic sign. The sign cannot be understood by one ideal sign-producer. In this case, social phenomena must be considered as the subject to change and restructure. Author declares that a semiotic approach should be overseen by unspecified principle. That is more, U. Eco brings up important questions in his semiotic approach to culture. Some of the questions include the following: what is a sign? What is the relation between signs and codes? How are signs produced, decoded and interpreted?
Eco defines a code, not as an element that organizes signs, but as a code that establishes rules that generates signs. Thus, the codes become a system of signification. In his view, it is also important to include a theory of how the sign may be produced and interpreted. In his theory of codes, the author explains that “signification” and sign-production explains “communication”. He defines “signification’ as the semiotic event when a sign “stands for” something, while “communication” is defined as a transmission of information from a source to a destination. Similarly, communication is based on existence of a code, or by a system of signification. The code and system of signification defines rules of how the expressions of signs interact with their content. One needs to use a code or a system of signification for a reason to build any form of communication. It gives us ability to correspond the expression and content of signs.
Further on, Eco, in the theory of sign-production conceives that it is necessary to implement a theory of communication next to a theory of “mentions” (i.e. referring acts) and a theory of communicational acts. In this case, communication clarifies the path of the information transition from a source through a channel (expression) to a destination. While theory of “mention” explains how signs can be used in a process of naming things and defining actual situations, the transition of verbal or non-verbal messages to a person would be analyzed by communicational acts.
So how we can define a sign? According to Eco, it is an abstract body, which is a cultural unit. Culture proposes its members a chain of cultural units that surround other cultural units. Due to this, culture constantly translates signs into other signs. “U. Eco claims a list of the following theories:
1. Meanings are culture.
2. These units can be isolated to the group of their interpreters as revealed in a given culture.
3. The study of the signs in a culture enables us to define the values of the interpreters by viewing them in a system of positions and oppositions.
4. Semantic fields are useful tool for explaining significant oppositions. “
Every aspect of culture becomes a semantic unit – a sign. When signs are put together they form a system. This system can be taken as a code to communicate, thus the communication process can be defined as a process of culture. This phenomenon works both ways, i.e. communication is culture and culture is communication. Society is the one that forms codes, establishes rules and generates signs and then defines the cultural image. To conclude, because we are change the code of communication shifts.
2.2. Signs in communication
Our communication is based on words. These words could be formed from a collection of signs – the letters of alphabet. Despite the words, signs are also used in communication. For example, the arrows in road signs help us to follow and navigate. In a situation, when we do not use spoken language, signs become the main form of communication. A good example of this would be the use of electronic tools. With help of the signs we can tell machines what to do. For example, people who speak different languages are able to understand these signs. Similarly, signs are the main objects that help us to navigate in the city, on roads and in airports. They show direction, define a place, and regulate the traffic. A good example of navigation sign is “T for the tram of Nice” by Pierre di Sciulio (1961) fig.1. Sciulio, a French graphic designer, designed this navigation sign for a city of Nice at 2007. The navigation sign defines a place for the tram station and defines a direction of the tramway. IU In this case, the letter “T” appears different each time, because cut-out forms are used to show the directions. This is a good example of how signs help people to orientate in the city.
This situation can be pictured by taking a simple sign – a dot. The dot itself has no meaning, but when used in writing, it is used to indicate the end of a sentence. In other languages, a dot can be used as an accent of a vowel. Further on, in Morse code, a dot in combination with dashes forms an alternative alphabet. The Morse code was developed and used as an international telegraphic system, which changed letters and numbers into dots and dashes. Likewise, for the FUZE magazine Rick Vermeulen (1950), a Dutch graphic designer, created the “Morsig” program. Fig.2. By making it into a digital typeface, he demonstrates its pure and basic form. The idea behind creating this alphabet was that “the alphabet is nothing more than a code” . In this case, “Morsig” stands for the code that reduces action off communications to the essential message.
The given examples show that person’s mind always combine signs together into form that provides a meaning. When dots and dashes are taken out of content and are placed separately, they lose meaning. However, if one puts dashes and dots together, our brains immediately start combining them and putting them into a form, that then has a meaning; for example, a face. We will “read” these signs as a face, a pictographic sign that represents a person.
The other example is Moniteurs typeface “MMMteurs-Cyber/MMMteurs-Real”. In this case, we form a letter putting characters together. The typeface is made of equals signs, slashes, backslashes and semicircles. The designer already arranged characters to form a letter. However, the viewer needs to connect the missing parts in his mind to see the letter.
The given examples demonstrate how alphabetic signs can be made from non-alphabetic signs. The new form constructed from several signs gives a graphical appearance. In this case, an alphabetic sign becomes a graphical representation of the letter. However, signs become readable only if they are placed together. If one places given signs separately, they can start to represent different things or end up falling out of context. This notion proves that our mind notices and “reads” the signs, in the way we are taught to identify it. Further on, while seeing elements and separating signs, individuals always tend to look for a reason to connect them, in order that would make sense. The alphabet is the most unconsciously used sign system. It is a base for verbal and non-verbal communication.
2.3. Alphabetic signs as a visual language
Communication can be distinguished in two ways: verbal or non-verbal signs. The non-verbal communication, in this case - written words, give us the ability to communicate in each other’s absence. Letters of an alphabet are most common signs in our transmission of messages and together in a system, become the elements of writing. The use of words and letters is the main aspect that separates human language from other animal communication.
By analyzing the origins of writing and the alphabet, we can get an impression of how signs work. In addition, this also enables us to classify them. The evolution of the alphabet specifies two kinds of sings. First of them is picture writing. It was based on making drawings and putting them into the sequence. The images (pictograms) mean what they represent, and by organizing them into a sequence, they can make a story that sends a message. Pictograms can also be used as metaphor. For example, to represent “light”, “heat” or “day” we can use a picture of the sun. In this case, it becomes an ideogram. An ideogram stands for a picture that has a meaning beyond its represented basic form. In this case, ideograms and pictograms become more like symbols, rather than signs. However, they can be implemented and used as a part of a system of signs.
On a similar note, another kind of sign is an alphabetic sign. The evolution of the alphabetic signs grew out from pictures and was meant to describe our spoken language. Phoenicians invented the first alphabet around 1250BC. It consisted of 22 consonants and was written from right to left. To represent all the possible syllables, the large number of signs was reduced to combinations of few consonants. It became a consonantal alphabet that meant that while reading, a suitable vowel was added to each given consonant. Through their mercantile culture, the Phoenicians spread the alphabet to Greece and other Mediterranean countries. However, in the homeland, Aramaic replaced the Phoenician language around the year 1 AD. The new language was influenced by Phoenician and had 22 consonants in common. Further on, Phoenician and Aramaic language was a source for Semitic Hebrew. In 1984 it became the official language of Israel and it is still written from the right to the left. Similarly, next ones who took over the “ baton” (alphabet) were Greeks. They used the Phoenician consonantal alphabet in addition to Aramaic vowels. The Greeks added more vowels and started writing from the left to the right. The alphabet became the alphabet of the western world through the Etruscans, which were then concurred by the Latins.
Looking through the timeline of the typographical development one can see how the Latin alphabet transformed into graphical form. Throughout the history, designers created and improved the typefaces according to the communication tendencies and mediums of the contemporary period. An interesting example of that could be the typeface “Linear Konstruct” by Max Kisman (1953), a Dutch graphic designer. Kisman’s typeface was based on the Roman alphabet and influenced by basic runic shapes. The capital letters are the same as the lower-case, but are underlined while the numbers are overlined. Linear Konstruct was made at 1986, as screen font. The typeface was made as an example of “dialect” or “code” alphabet. Max Kisman imagined his typeface to be used by small-scale societies as internal communication tool. Kisman suggest, that the influence of computer systems and communications tools, dialectic alphabets will become commonly used.
In the beginning, we used pictures as a form of communication that was later followed by the development of an alphabet. In communication, it is possible to use alphabetic signs and pictograms together. Combinations of these two kinds of signs can also be sent as a message. It can carry the same amount of information, but in less signs and still remains understandable. The communication of our days, like never before is full of those examples, especially -- the common (basic) language. Text messages, comments on the Internet and social web pages are full of those examples. The style we have now in our basic language was strongly influenced by the texting method. Emoticons and abbreviations help us to send a message faster and with less typing. In my opinion, this common trend of today seems to reflect the beginning of the alphabet. With emoticons we are able to express most of emotions. We use them in the end of a sentence most of the time, or just send a single emoticon. The variety of emoticons that are provided creates a possibility to formulate a story. With them, we can express emotion and what we are doing.
Here I would like to mention a “LoCos” language invented by Yukio Ota’s (1939). Ota is Japanese graphic designer and current professor in the Design Department at Tama. He proposed “LoCos” language while studying in Italy at 1964. “LoCos” is a visible language created for people to provide a communication tool amongst people who do not share a spoken language. This language was even investigated as a possible visual language for phones.
From the given example one can see that the language was potentially universal and easy to use. The example shows that the new form of communication was questioned for a reason to create a universal language to everybody. What one sees in this particular language, is that the signs are used in such a way, that they give us the possibility to transform a whole sentence into the symbols. In this LoCos language “dot” that used to indicate “now”. While the “dot followed by a dash” to indicate the “past” and the “dash followed by a dot” to indicated “future”. To indicate a “man” the sign of a circle was chosen. The basic symbols are chosen to indicate time, and secondary are used to name a person, object and actions. If we are aware of the signs, we then can read the whole sentence and story.
Another great example of using alphabet as a structure and form to express the visual language used at that moment is the FUSE magazine. It was an experimental publication by Neville Brody (1957) and Jon Wozencroft (1958) on fonts and typography. Brody is internationally known designer, typographer and Wozencroft is a senior tutor at The Ryoal Collage of Arts in London. They launched magazine in 1990, assembled in London and published by FontShop International until 2012. Each issue was packed in carton box with a disc with four or more fonts in it and five printed posters. Four designers were commissioned for each issue of the magazine to explore themes related to various tendencies in communication. FUSE was meant to be a magazine for exploration. The participants were invited to experiment with the visual language forms that we use. Each publication of the magazine became a research document revealing new explorations. The basic idea of the FUSE was that language is flowing and digital distribution systems allow us to circulate ideas that are changing in the visual form. The magazine was a graphical experiment to express these changes made by digital distribution. The aim of the magazine was not to develop a new language system for communication, but to concentrate on visual experiments. In my opinion, this example is interesting, because it shows flexibility of the alphabet. The alphabet by its firm form becomes a canvas for experiments. The alphabet can be implemented with other symbols and manipulations. In this case, the alphabet gains more expression. Due to graphical form, it can send more information for what it is used, or complement a story its visuals.
Similarly, most of the typefaces in FUSE magazine are barely legible. The forms of the alphabets are too complex and graphical to transfer a message to a wider audience. However, in this system a small community could use these typefaces due to its inclusive legibility.
Historically, the visual form of a given alphabet always changed according to the period, which it was used. The biggest changes in the communication systems happened before the formation of the Latin alphabet. Before it, other alphabets and texts looked like symbols. After Latins formed constant letter shapes, influenced the design by writing tools, which were used for inscription. For example, the Uncial script was written holding a pen horizontally while making round forms. With the development of computers, pixelated typefaces originated, they were influenced by the grid of a screen. In the present, with a help of computer, we can redesign and redraw all typefaces. Moreover, we can see that our alphabetic code is changing. It is becoming more visual and abstract. The combination of emoticons and abbreviations transforms it into a graphical and decoded language.
2.3. Abbreviations
Besides using alphabetic signs and pictograms together, the alphabetic signs can also become a “sign”. Good example of this is abbreviations. An abbreviation is a shortened form of a word or phrase, with a word usually being shortened to three or four letters. There are two ways to shorten a word: making abbreviation, then a shortened form of a word, used to represent the whole (for example, TMRW for tomorrow) and making acronym, then a word formed from the initial letters of expression (for example, LOL stands for laughing out loud). To understand the meaning of an abbreviation or an acronym, we need to learn it that then gives us the ability to be able to recognize it. Through this, an abbreviation becomes a sign that is being recognized to send a meaning through a shortened version. Nowadays, typing tools – for example computers and mobile phones, influence appearance of the abbreviations we use now.
It is common opinion that texting /typing is a curse. The idea is that, texting falls out of serious literacy or writing ability. The manner of texting is widely spread among young people that are the ones, who started using the method and spread it. This phenomenon raises a lot of questions such as: “is our language getting a new form?” and “are we becoming illiterate?”
In order to answer these questions, we need to look back into the foundations of language. Language has existed for perhaps 150,000 years and it first appeared as a speech. People used to spread news by speech, in modern times the main way we use our language is by speaking. Writing came along much later and the manner of speaking changed along. Today, we are not using metaphoric/poetic manners in our casual speech anymore. The casual speech is something quite different. Linguists claim that we are talking in a non-observing way, using a word collection of seven to ten words. That makes the speech looser and telegraphic. Historically, we used to speak the way we write. It makes sense that one also might want to write the way one speaks. In the past, communication tools were not able to provide it. It was not possible to keep up conversation while using the manual typewriter. In order to keep up the conversation you have to have somebody who can receive your message quickly. Once you have the thing next to you that can receive the message, then you have the circumstances that allows, us to write as we speak. This is the situation where texting comes in. Texting is very loose in its structure, nobody thinks about capitals and punctuation. We act the same while we speak. Thus, texting gives us an ability to write how we speak.
With a new manner of writing (typing), a new kind of language and structure is coming to fruition. For example, an abbreviation “LOL” is widely used. We usually think of it as meaning “laughing out loud”, and it does, and people used it to actually indicate laughing out loud. However, at the present it has evolved into something, which is much more subtle. It became a marker of empathy and of accommodation. Similarly to this case, we have a whole collection of new constructions that are developing and implemented to texting. Texting is criticized to be an inelegant and incorrect writing. There will always be people who worry about these things, but what is happening in the present is that young people are developing a new way of writing. They are using it alongside their ordinary writing skills, which enable them to be able to use language in more ways than usual.
People have always used abbreviations, but by the influence of texting it is becoming more widely used. Nowadays, the blended version is used not just to represent a word, but to express empathy and feelings. We use them as marks of the letters to describe our present emotion. In my opinion, the abbreviations are becoming visual marks/metaphors. By its short version of three to four letters, they are still able to send a message. We are able to understand it, if we are aware of that specific abbreviation. The message (meaning) stays the same, just the form changes. For example, WIFI – wireless Internet Free Internet; LDR – a long-distance relationship and other are implemented in Oxford Dictionary Online. This proves that these abbreviations are becoming an important part of our language.