Abstract
The body, as a site of both constraint and liberation, is a medium for the exploration of human potential. With goals of evolving desire, there is a push towards the boundaries of what it means to be human, entire. My fascination with body modification derives from the body as a resource for a new being, showing the body as a landscape of the reflection of autonomy. In the extreme forms of body modification, there is an advancement of a new form of human expression and evolution, in line with the post-humanism paradigm.
As we explore the motives behind the extreme forms of altering the body, in reality and art, we see that the practices in present Western culture are signals for a society in transition, one that stands for a redefinition of human, animal, and machine. From anthropocentric thinking, we see that the position of human over animal should no longer be the current starting point, as this relationship is shifting. The boundaries that determine what a person or animal is, are becoming blurred. The accelerated developments in technology and informatics are visible in the changing human.
On the basis of two icons, each in their own way involved in changing their body in an extreme fashion, and a number of striking examples from art, Iâll show how these are manifestations of a world and human in transition.
Introduction
The body, a malleable entity,
A site of constant negotiation.
A paradigm shift,
Challenging the very essence of human identity.
Tools of self-expression and liberation.
A blurring of lines, technology imbued,
A reification of agency, a new form of subjugation.
The body as a site of both constraint and liberation,
A medium for the exploration of human limitation.
With goals of evolving desire,
A push towards the boundaries of what it means to be human, entire.
The body, a site of constant becoming.
An ontological shift, a reconceptualization,
Transhumanism, an invitation for transformation, a realization.
My fascination with body modification derives from the thought of our body as a resource for a new being, showing our body as a landscape of the reflection of autonomy. Essentially, our body is a landscape that can be shaped and sculpted by the forces of nature, culture, and techne. Natural reproduction, environmental adaptation and technical implants blend to new forms of bodies.
Moreover, my interest in this domain extends to the conscious choices that individuals make to further express their physical selves. I am intrigued by the degree to which the human body can be transformed through the use of implants. The phenomenon of extreme body modification can take the form of recognizable animal traits or implants such as sensors and chips. They can enhance human sensory capabilities and expand the bodyâs capacities with âsuperhumanâ skills, posing intriguing questions about the meaning of such changes.
This thesis does not delve into the realm of surgical interventions for medicinal purposes, such as the treatment of burns, performing exigent amputations, implanting prosthetic hips or knees, or implanting life-sustaining cardiac devices. Nor does it concern itself with the art of cosmetic surgery, which is often sought after to meet societal standards of beauty, as epitomized by the likes of the Kardashian family.Abbey Rose Maloney (Maloney, 2017) writes about the body-positive movement and sex-positive movement that beauty icons like Kim Kardashian and Kylie Jenner have unleashed. She concludes that the Kardashian-Jenners âpartially encourage the fourth-wave feminist notions of body-positivity and sex-positivity in their target audience, and they have made their target audience trans-aware, and transacceptingâ (Maloney, 2017, p. 58). And: âThe modern body-positive movement does not shame women who change their bodies in unnatural ways because it makes them feel more confident, and because they want to do soâ (Ibid., p. 58).
Considering art as a reflection of social progress, I felt the urge to explore the ways in which these developments manifest in certain extreme forms of performance art, particularly through forms of body modification. Can we regard these exceptional cases as an exploration and advancement of a new form of human expression and evolution, in line with the post-humanism paradigm?
Signs of skin
Body modification is the practice of altering oneâs physical appearance through various means, such as tattoos, piercings, scarification, branding, amputation and cosmetic surgery. It is a phenomenon that has been practiced throughout human history, with the earliest evidence dating back to the Neolithic period in the form of Ătzi the Iceman, a well-preserved mummy from 3300 BCE with various tattoos on his skin.
Ătzi, also known as the Iceman, is a well-preserved mummy of a man who lived around 3300 BCE, and one of the most intriguing features of his remains are the tattoos on his skin. These tattoos, consisting of small parallel lines arranged in geometric patterns, have been the subject of much research, with theories suggesting they could have had therapeutic or medicinal purposes, religious or spiritual significance, or as a form of personal expression or social identification. The discovery of tattoos on Ătziâs body provides valuable insight into the culture and practices of Copper Age people, and further research on the tattoos is expected to reveal new insights into their meaning and significance in ancient society (Deter-Wolf et al., 2016).This case â although one of many â shows that body modification is an age-old phenomenon.
Different cultures have their own unique forms of body modification, often with specific meanings and symbolic significance. In ancient Egypt, for example, both men and women would tattoo themselves with religious symbols as a form of spiritual protection. In Polynesia, traditional tattoos, or âtatauâ (the origin of the word âtattooâ), were used to mark a personâs status and achievements within the community (Robinson, 2010). And in many cultures (African, South-American, Oceanic) finger amputation and other forms of self-mutilation were practiced, mostly as a demonstration of mourning (Siegeltuch, 2018).
Scarification was, and is, used in various indigenous cultures as a rite of passage or to mark important events in a personâs life. In West Africa, for example, the Ashanti people use scarification as a way to mark their status in the community and as a form of spiritual protection. In other cultures, body modification is also associated with ritual or spiritual practices. For instance, in Hinduism and Buddhism, the piercing of the ears is believed to release the energy of the body (Gold, 1996), while in some African cultures, scarification is believed to be a way to communicate with the spirits (Cullivan, 1998; Garve et al., 2017).
Importantly, all these cultural phenomena are traditions or habits within relatively closed cultural communities. In contemporary Western culture, however, body modification is often seen as a form of self-expression, as an expression of individual identity (Weiler et al., 2021). Weiler et al. (2021) have investigated the âneed for uniquenessâ factor as possible motive for modifying oneâs body. They found that pierced and extreme-body-modified individuals tend to âdisplay a propensity to actively flout rules and not worry about othersâ opinions on their modificationsâ. This does apply in a lesser extent to tattooed persons.
Piercing and tattooing are popular and âlightâ forms of body modification, but in this thesis I will particularly examine the extreme cases.
Beneath the skin
An extreme form of body modification can be achieved by implanting objects underneath the skin, above the skin, or partly under and partly above the skin, also called âsubdermalâ, âdermalâ and âtransdermalâ implantation. The practice of applying implants to modify the human body dates back to ancient times. For example, the ancient Mayans and Aztecs applied subdermal implants made from jade and other precious stones to decorate their faces and ears. Similarly, the indigenous people of the Pacific Islands used the same method to insert shells and bones into their skin.
The modern practice of applying implants as a form of body modification began to gain popularity in the 1950s and 1960s with the advent of new materials such as silicone. Since then, the application of implants has become increasingly popular, and the materials and techniques used have evolved to include a wide range of options such as silicone, steel, and biocompatible materials (Roberts, 2018).
The use of dermal or subdermal implants such as horns, scales, and other decorative features has a resemblance to ancient mythical creatures like dragons, demons, and other fantasy beings. In ancient times, people believed in various gods and demigods, and people made constructs of superhuman hybrid beings. Many of these creatures were half man, half animal, and had animalistic qualities that manifested in strength, speed, better hearing and seeing. Their deviant appearance was often meant to induce awe and fear (Posthumus, 2011).
Moreover, the resemblance to hybrid beings in ancient times is often intentional, as many people who choose to undergo these types of modifications are inspired by fantasy and mythology. In some cases, the resemblance to ancient mythical creatures is also related to the symbolism and cultural significance associated with those creatures. Some people may choose to have horn implants to symbolize strength, power, and protection, in the same way as horns are associated with strength and power in the mythical creatures of many cultures. Similarly, scales or other reptilian features can symbolize resilience, adaptability, and agility, similar to the way that dragons and other reptiles are portrayed in mythology (Abdel-Aal, 2018).
The above-mentioned resemblance is an interesting phenomenon. Some modify themselves to the construct that their predecessor once made. In the figure below, some examples of body modifications of the present time are compared with mythological creatures from ancient times (Olijkan, 2023). For example, in figure 5, Anthony Loffredo, also called âBlack Alienâ, on the left side, bears resemblance to âMoth manâ, one of the ten mythological creatures that are highlighted in the study âMy beautiful bodyâ (Ibid.).
Claws and fins
Notable in the category of hybrid body modification is Dennis Avnerâs body modification, called âStalking catâ (Pemberton, 2003). Dennis Avner (1958-2012), was a native American man who underwent extensive body modification to resemble a cat or tiger. He began his transformation in the 1980s. Over the years he got various tattoos, piercings, and surgical procedures to alter his appearance, including a procedure to widen his upper lip, as well as dental work to sharpen his teeth, and he was fitted with a mechanical tail.
Avner was a member of the âmodern primitiveâ movement, which embraces body modification as a form of self-expression and spiritual exploration. He believed that by modifying his body to resemble a tiger, he was able to connect with the spirit of the animal and tap into its strength and power. This extreme form of body altering led to a metamorphosis of the outer appearance. Besides these procedures affected the outer appearance of Avner, he also adopted habits such as eating the same as cats, and hunting like one.
Another form of body modifying with subdermal implants is through tech implants; this is also known as biohacking (or: grindhouse technology) and represents the human cyborg. Cyborg is a portmanteau of âcyberneticâ and âorganismâ and stands for the physical fusion of humans and machines. Cyborgs first appeared in science fiction, but the term is also used for people who are kept alive for medical reasons through the use of artificial implants, equipment, or attachments. Haraway (1991) offers a broader definition, in which she includes people who wear glasses and those who rely on their mobile phones as cyborgs.
This form of body modification involves the integration of technological devices into the human body for various purposes, such as enhancing physical abilities, accessing information or augmenting sensory experience. Examples of implantable devices are chips, sensors, electrodes, or wearable technology such as exosuits or cybernetic prosthetics.
One example of a person that is well known for his cyborg performance art is Manel De Aguas, born in 1996 (Zas, 2019; LĂŒgger, 2019). In contrast to Avner, De Aguas is a performance artist. He is equipped with âweather finsâ, special devices on either side of his head that allow him to perceive changes in atmospheric pressure, humidity, and temperature. With these fins, he has the ability to predict changes in the weather and sense his altitude based on the sensations he feels. With his technology, De Aguas achieves a unique level of sensory perception. By blending the organic and non-organic, the line between man and machine gets blurred. Over time, De Aguas has tested several prototypes, but it cannot be deduced from the available information (Zas, 2019; LĂŒgger, 2019) whether he has actually had the devices implanted.
If we compare these two cases, we see different motives in the first place. In the film âAnimal imitatorsâ (Pemberton, 2003), Avner declares that he has always had a profound admiration for felines and feels closely related to them. He has put his desire to transform himself into a cat into practice; âStalking catâ can be seen as an example of an extreme body change towards the animal. De Aguas, on the other hand, is a performance artist who primarily aims to demonstrate that humans can become superhumans by using technology. âWeather finsâ goes the other way as he wants to acquire superhuman properties, using modern technology, but at the same time implementing animal-like skills and expressing this through animalistic ears (fins).
Despite these differences, what Avner and De Aguas both have in common is that they both favor an animal appearance, and that they both want to express a new form of identity.
As earlier mentioned, transdermal implants have been associated with cyborgs. If it comes down to deciding whether one of the above cases can be defined as real cyborgs, we need to be careful. According to generally accepted definitions, a cyborg is a creature in science fiction that is part human and part machine. Haraway, however, author of A Cyborg Manifesto, In 1985 Donna Haraway became world famous. In that year she published her first edition of A Cyborg Manifesto, an in-depth study of the relationship between man and machine. In A Cyborg Manifesto, Donna Haraway unites radical engagement, critical feminism, disturbing ideas and an understanding of modern technology studies. In her essay, Haraway demonstrates that all sorts of old dichotomies have become obsolete and she proposes a new political perspective. She uses the cyborg for this purpose, a cross between man and machine. Her manifest is a modern classic that is still in line with current events.
extends this definition to: âA cyborg is a cybernetic organism, a hybrid of machine and organism, a creature of social reality as well as a creature of fictionâ (Haraway, 1991, p. 150). What she adds, from a feminist-socialist point of view, is the element âcreature of social realityâ. She regards the âboundary between science fiction and social realityâ as an âoptical illusionâ (Ibid.). And she continues: âBy the late twentieth century, our time, a mythic time, we are all chimeras, theorized and fabricated hybrids of machine and organism; in short, we are cyborgsâ (Haraway, 1991, p. 151).
Neither Avner nor De Aguas are fictional characters, so in that respect they donât comply with the general definition. However, De Aguas fits the definition the best, as he has a technical device built into his body and therefore can be called part human, part machine. Avner, then, would be a borderline case in my opinion. He does have a technical extension in the form of a tail (Pemberton, 2003), but the tail misses a function, like De Aguasâ ear device. In Harawayâs definition, however, both Avner and De Aguas can be called cyborgs, as everyone is a cyborg.
The body as a form of individual expression
A lot has been written and documented in films about body modification and body modifiers in modern times. Many manifestations can be seen, and we can distinguish different underlying motives. However, there is one thing that most of these manifestations have in common: the modifiers want to deviate from the norm, deviate from what is considered as ânormalâ, i.e., the average idea of what we should look like. An exception should be made for the examples of body modification that we see among indigenous cultures. In these cultures, modification functions (or functioned) as a norm, or a way to express a certain position within their hierarchical system (see Part 1).
âThe normâ in the outward appearance of humans is not an easy concept. When we talk about âthe normâ, we probably mean the average idea of what a human looks like, or rather the idea an average human looks like. Are we then thinking of beauty ideals, which are connotated with attractiveness? Can you equate beauty ideals with âthe normâ? Beauty ideals are often âextremesâ as well. And there is not always consensus about these âidealsâ, as they may be culturally determined and may fluctuate from time to time.
There is extensive literature on the phenomenon âbeauty idealâ. What strikes most, is that beauty ideals are mostly associated with women, and that a common core is that women must be thin. Brown & Slaughter (2011, p. 119) found that âthe thin ideal is already present in primary school children and remains stable into adulthood, with concerning implications for body dissatisfaction and related disorders.â
Beauty ideals may differ from culture to culture and are no absolute concepts. To whoever it may concern, they act as a sort of guidelines, as targets, but in themselves they often form extremes. Beauty ideals can lead to âconversionâ â making people look alike, with the help from the cosmetic surgeonâs industry (Briscoe, 2004) It must be noted that Briscoe, in her very readable report, relies heavily on Virginia Blumâs Flesh Wounds: The Culture Of Cosmetic Surgery (Blum, 2005).
The word âidealâ says it already: an ideal simply is not the norm.
Does a singular norm exist?
One cannot say that there is one static and ever valid norm, concerning the outward appearance of humans. One might say that it is appreciated if somebody has all his limbs, has no disabilities whatsoever, is not too thin and not too fat, and has a âregularâ complexion. See for example Grammer & Thornhill (1994), who show that facial symmetry has a positive influence on facial attractiveness ratings. But general norms go further than that and may differ over time, and from culture to culture.
âThe Body Projectâ of the Bradley University in Peoria (Illinois, USA) formulates it as follows: âAll societies have notions about the ânormalâ (or normative) body, but these norms vary greatly across cultures. In some cultures, people are expected to modify their bodies through such practices as tattooing, neck elongation, earlobe elongation, scarification, tooth filing or body piercing. Such practices are often both an important part of initiation rituals, and a powerful expression of ethnic identity or spiritual commitment. Ear-piercing has long been a socially acceptable practice in the US, both other forms of body modification, such as tattooing, scarification, cosmetic surgery and extreme tanning, are becoming increasingly popular. While such practices can serve as a form of creative self-expression, they can also have some negative physical, psychological and social effectsâ (Bradley University, 2023). So, what is seen as ânormalâ may differ from culture to culture and beauty ideals may evolve and may be subject to trends. It is impossible to pinpoint those ideals, as they are subject to change.
Pitts (1999) describes the ânormalâ body as a âproduct of cultural investment and social controlâ. By that she means that masculine and feminine patterns, power, culture and social status together âshapeâ the normal body. However, humans can consciously deviate from the norm, as an act of protest, rebellion or disruption (Pitts, 1999, p. 1-2). Quoting Harper et al. and Bordo, she states: âThe deviant body proclaims the freedom of difference, alterity, particularity, or identic un-fixity, and implies an âintoxicatingâ potential of heterogeneity and cultural critiqueâ (Pitts, 1999, p. 3).
Bobel & Kwan (2011) collected a catalog of cases of people who consciously want to deviate from the norm, who do not want to conform to the norm. Examples are: women who do not want to have hair removed on body parts where it is generally seen as not appropriate, a woman who shaves her head from an early age, but also: a transgender person, an extremely obese person, consciously anorectic persons, self-injurers, etc. What these people have in common is that they deviate from the norm, or, to put it more forcefully, they rebel against the norm, but most of them do not fit in the extreme body modification pattern.
Metamorphic Longings
You could say that body modifiers want to deviate from the generally accepted standard (âthe normâ), even want to violate these standards. At least, that is how the mainstream looks at them. From the viewpoint of body modifiers, this might feel quite different. They just want to express their own identity. And they may pursue this very personally, strictly individually. But at the same time, this individuality is a relative concept, as in many cases body modifiers do want to belong to a (select) group, a group which forms its own subculture.
Pitts (1999)Victoria L. Pitts is a sociologist and professor at San Francisco State University. She has produced several publications on body modification and subculture, including the thesis Body Strategies: Signifying the Body in Subculture (1999).
She studies how subcultures use the body to communicate identity and meaning, analyzing how groups like punk, goth, and hip-hop modify their bodies to express specific norms and values, rebelling against the dominant culture and creating their own identity.sees the ânormal bodyâ as a product of cultural investment and social control. She sees body modification as a realm of personal expression, as a âbearer identityâ. In her research, she discusses the ways in which people use body modification to express their identity and differentiate themselves from mainstream culture. She views body modification as a strategy people use to âclaim and define who they areâ. She sees the body as a place of social struggle and discontent, creativity and identity politics. The body is denaturalized by body modifiers in ways that challenge disciplinary social control over the body and normative ethnicity.
Additionally, Pitts (1999) sees body modification as a political act and expression because it allows people to âclaim and define who they areâ and thus take power and control over their own bodies and identities. By modifying themselves, they can challenge not only mainstream culture, but also the political power structures that this culture is part of. In this way, the scholar argues that body modification is an important political tool that can help people claim their own identity and power and challenge existing power structures. Ultimately, Pitts does not view body modification as a disease or problematic behavior, but rather as a way in which people exercise power and control over their own bodies and identities.
Disclaiming the body
By âdisclaiming the bodyâ Pitts (1999) means the process by which individuals distance themselves from the meaning which is usually attached to the human body in the dominant culture. Hence, they refuse to view their body as an object aimed at seduction and gratification, but instead use it to communicate different meanings and values. According to Pitts, this plays an important role in the formation of subcultural identities, because it is how individuals assign new meaning to their bodies and distance themselves from dominant norms and values.
Furthermore, the sociologist speaks of the tendency for modern individuals to join subcultures and groups that share a common identity. This is a response to the individualization and globalization of society, in which people feel lost, no longer know who they are and feel the need to connect with other individuals who understand them and share their values and norms. According to Pitts, neotribalism has an important influence on the formation of subcultural identities because it allows individuals to participate in a community that accepts them and complements their personality and meaning (Pitts, 1999, Ch. 4).
Ethical and medical dilemmas
The documentary Animal imitators (Pemberton, 2003) is an âExtreme Body Modification documentaryâ which treats, among others, the case of Dennis Avner. From a young age, Avner saw himself as equal to cats and was often in fellowship with them. Already from a young age he was working on altering his body so that he could get more catlike characteristics and get the same appearance as cats. His modifications were done by body modifier Steve Hayworth.
Hayworth is not a surgeon with a medical background; he sees himself as a performer, an artist. About his art, he says: âAs an artist and a practitioner of body modification, my sole goal is to make people more unique and more away from what society considers normal. So I work under a different code of ethics. [âŠ] I think it is very personal to him and very idiosyncratic. Itâs not something that any other native Americans would accept as being indicative of a native American religionâ (Pemberton, 2003). Hayworth indicates that regular surgeons are not allowed to perform this type of surgery, as the American Medical Association considers modifying the body away from what society considers normal, to be unethical. Besides, there are medical experts who believe that surgery like the one Hayworth performs can be dangerous to the patient. In the documentary, an American cosmetic surgeon comments: âI donât feel as a cosmetic surgeon that I should be altering the human body to make a person look like an animal or another figure. I think first of these procedures as dangerous, I think theyâre completely unethical, and itâs my goal and my objective to protect the patient from themselves if you will to make sure that theyâre not going to regret it either now or in the futureâ (Pemberton, 2003).
In short, in this documentary different aspects of extreme body modification are highlighted: ethical, medical, and moral issues. The following questions are put forward: Can a person decide about his own body, no matter what extreme or eccentric ideas the person has about his body? May a surgeon do this kind of surgery? May a non-medical trained person do this kind of surgery? Can these procedures damage somebodyâs mental or physical health?
The present opinion among progressive thinkers is that people should be able to decide about their own body, and that (trained) surgeons should be allowed to do this type of surgery. Eminent authors, such as Schramme (2008), make the plea not to see body modification or body mutilation as an aberration, and consequently would not want to criminalize this kind of wishes and practices. Schramme discusses body modification procedures which do not serve a therapeutic purpose, and which are not regarded as aesthetically acceptable by the majority, such as tongue splitting, branding and flesh stapling. He observes that those procedures are now practiced, but are seen by the majority as a kind of âaberrationâ that ought not to be allowed. He goes into the different arguments of these opponents, but concludes, in short, that he sees no convincing support to prohibit voluntary mutilations.
Pitts (2016) qualifies the mediaâs framing of non-mainstream body modification as a social problem. In her article, she analyzes 35 mainstream newspaper articles on body modification. She concludes that in all these articles an image is created (she calls it âframingâ) that persons who undertake such modifications, are in a way mental cases. They form a sort of social problem. Pitts observes that the arguments and claims of the body changers are not really heard, so what they actually want is basically supposed to be not legitimate.
The body as medium
Body modification is a phenomenon that can often be traced back to performance art. It can be a reflection of the artistâs desire to explore and challenge societal norms and conventions related to the human body. By using the body as a medium, the artist is able to connect with their audience on a deeper level.
Objectifying the body
A pioneer in using the body as a medium is Marina AbramoviÄ. AbramoviÄ is known for her physically and emotionally challenging performances, in which she explores the limits of the self and the body. In her work Rhythm 0 from 1974 (Artfilemagazine, 2022) AbramoviÄ stood still for six hours while members of the audience were invited to use objects such as rose petals, feathers, honey, and knives on her body. This piece was meant to challenge notions of power dynamics and the relationship between performer and the audience. Through the use of her own body and transformation she underwent during the performance, AbramoviÄ aimed to question the boundaries of the self and the limit of human endurance.
In several art performances, AbramoviÄ collaborated with her former partner Ulay (1943-2020). All these performances involved the use of their bodies. In Imponderabilia (1977) the artists stood naked, facing each other closely at the entrance of an art gallery, forcing visitors to choose who of the two they would face when passing. By using their bodies as a barrier, AbramoviÄ and Ulay sought to confront viewers with their own physicality and sense of personal space.
In similar fashion, the concept of the film Crimes of the Future (2022), showed the relationship between the performance artists Caprice and Saul, that likely recalled the duo AbramoviÄ and Ulay. In a review in Artnews (Greenberger, 2022) the same connotations are mentioned. This film poses a relevant and innovative view on how to deal with our body and scenarios of the future within the thought of the body as a medium. Several subjects are touched upon in the film, such as the exploration of identity; where in one scene there is a conversation about the search for plastic surgeons who want to perform procedures that do not implement and pursue the normative ideal of beauty. Moreover, the filmâs surreal, dystopian setting highlights the potential consequences of a world dominated by technology and consumerism. The film delves into the intriguing concept of neo-organs, an innovative approach to enhancing the human body through the creation of improved body parts. This raises thought-provoking discussions regarding the ethics surrounding the procurement of donor organs, pushing beyond the confines of contemporary debates (Greenberger, 2022).
The central concept of the film is the idea that external beauty is a reflection of inner beauty, and that the notion of âbeautyâ extends beyond mere physical appearance to encompass self-improvement and self-expression. The notion of adorning newly-made organs, not just through transplantation but through the art of tattooing, is a groundbreaking and novel concept explored in the film. This practice is referred to as âtattooing of novel organsâ, which shows a unique perspective on the boundaries of human potential.
The ear man
Another performance artist who makes use of his body and goes very far in this, is âThe Ear Manâ, an artist that can be associated with the science fiction movie Crimes of the Future, and who is also mentioned in Greenbergerâs article (Greenberger, 2022). The Ear Man is an artist who has sewn his eyes and lips, and adorned his body with many extra ears, which he shows in a provocative and disturbing manner.
This performance appears to be an allusion to the work of Australian artist Stelarc, who, in 2007, had a cell-cultivated third ear surgically attached to his left arm. The work was a reflection of the rapidly shifting digital landscape and the ways in which bodies and identities are adapting in response. Stelarc himself has stated that the ear represents not a lack, but an excess of connectivity, as our interfaces become more important than our physical bodies.
Despite its reference to Stelarcâs work, the film seems to approach The Ear Manâs performance with a measure of skepticism. A businesswoman in the film dismisses The Ear Manâs act as poor conceptual art and remarks that he is a better dancer than artist. Through the character of The Ear Man, the film invites us to consider the implications of our rapidly evolving relationship with technology, and the boundaries we are willing to push in our pursuit of self-expression and connection.
Inner and outer beauty
Cronenberg wrote the script of Crimes of the Future around 20 years ago, when he already thought of various approaches to deal with the worldâs plastic problem. In an interview (Q with Tom Power, 2022) Cronenberg talks about Crimes of the Future as âitâs the evolution of the body and the eating of plasticâ. He points out that microplastic has been found in the bloodstream of many people, and it is estimated that it can be found in the bodies of eighty percent of todayâs global population. According to Cronenberg the human body seems to tolerate these amounts of microplastics unexpectedly well. This element has been translated in the film through the concept of eating specially processed candy bars of toxic waste.In the interview, Cronenberg states: âI propose that the solution to the way we are destroying the earth, partly with plastics, is not to stop the production of plastics, nor is it to say we should clean the earth and the ocean. Rather, we should clean everybodyâs bodies of microplastics. Stopping the production of plastics is not very likely. The alternative solution is that we should eat plastics (Q with Tom Power, 2022).â In support of this idea, Cronenberg argues that biologists and scientists have found that there are bacteria that use plastics as a nutrient. And, since both bacteria and humans are made up of single cells, thereâs a chance that humans could also process plastics and use them as a nutrient. In Cronenbergâs eyes, this could potentially solve some of the worldâs problems related to plastic waste.
To me, Cronenbergâs line of thinking seems rather provocative and probably unrealistic. However, nobody knows if our body canât adjust itself to the mentioned circumstances, so I think it is worth a closer look.
Cronenbergâs take on inner and outer beauty and introducing a new concept of âtattooing novel organsâ is something that is closer than we think. Because of the rapid development of technology and possibilities in our body-altering culture, some people are already tattooing the inside of our mouth and eyeballs. Likewise, there is the more philosophical thought of how to treat our inside as our outside and the experimentation that comes with it. This goes hand in hand with the creation of new improved body parts and organs that shows a breakdown of âthe systemâ. Ultimately, the manifestations of new body parts have to deal with the social discussion today about donor organs and even the transplantation of animal organs into the human body.In an article in Science Megan Sykes (Sykes, 2022) writes about recent and hopeful developments regarding pig-to-human organ transplants in connection with the present human transplant organ shortage.
Artificial bodies
Introducing another concept within the alteration of the body is the âdigital artificial bodyâ. Artist Kate Cooper (Norton, 2021) explores the boundaries between our physical and virtual selves in her works. She creates digital characters that display human-like emotions and physical traits, breaking the illusion of their immortality and endless productivity. By combining photographic and pixel-based images, she delves into the intersection of technology and the self, uncovering the hidden labor behind the digital facade. Cooper treats these simulated bodies as a sculptor would with clay, altering their form to reveal their vulnerability and humanity.
Below, a still from the video work Infection Drivers (2019) is presented. In this work, Cooper continues her examination of the body under attack (Norton, 2021). The video features a CG figure trapped in a translucent bodysuit, struggling to move and breathe. The suit changes shape, going through masculine and feminine transmutations, while the figureâs face is bruised and scarred. It is unclear whether the suit is protecting or harming the figure, and the video raises questions about the barriers that restrict our movements and emotions. In one moment, thereâs a suggestion of a desire to feel and transcend the invisible barrier of the body, while in another, the figure tears away the suit, suggesting a breaking of chains and gendered containers.
These few examples of art manifests, of which there are many others, are attempts and reflections of our current society and environment. Within this context, the appearances of âStalking catâ and âWeather finsâ are also noteworthy. Their anthropomorphic permanent body change can be considered as performance art, a reflection of developments and movements in society.
Repurposing the future body
According to Haraway (1991), it is time for a new political perspective, which she explains by means of the concept âcyborgâ, a fusion between man and machine. By this she does not only imply the traditional sense of the cyborg (e.g., bionic man or robots). She claims: all humans are cyborgs. Accessories such as a walker, glasses and mobile phone are part of our appearance and functioning. Some devices are implanted under the skin. Internally, pieces of the skeleton are replaced by plastic, devices are placed to support organs, and it is possible to modify our body with silicone. Drugs and antidepressants affect our emotional state, and we can compensate our lack of vitamins due to fast food meals with supplements. We become a mix of organic and artificial parts. The distinction between organic and technical, human, and machine, is becoming more and more diffuse.
Predictors of a new human
Coming back to âStalking catâ, who is in transition to animal, âWeather finsâ, who is equipped with superhuman skills, humans that feed on plastic, the digital body that balances between masculine and feminine, it could be argued that they are all illustrations of crossing boundaries between once established, but no longer appropriate categories of human, animal, objects in society. Do the boundary crossers blur the crossed boundaries, and do the categories merge in different hybrid forms into new entities and identities? Perhaps we can speak of breaking identities and recycling new entities. People becoming more animalistic, people becoming more cyborgs and transcending themselves, robots becoming more human⊠Are they the predictors of a new era, a new human, a new world?
When biotechnology and information technology merge completely, the current human being, according to Harari (2017),Yuval Noah Harari is an Israeli historian and futurologist, best known for his three books Sapiens, Homo deus and 21 Lessons for the 21st Century. His central message in Homo Deus (Harari, 2017) is that man can be overtaken by his own creations. In his book Lessons for the 21st Century (Harari, 2018) he predicts possible reactions of groups of people. There will be a group that cannot go along with the prevailing technology, another group (the transhumanists) will increasingly benefit from the technological possibilities and progress. This can lead to great inequality in society.
will be made obsolete. What are people when the mind is completely taken over by artificial intelligence and when work is replaced by play, referred to as a deadly game by Haraway (1991), and nature is repressed and suffocated?
Babylon 2.0
This reminds of New Babylon (Stamps et al., 2016), a concept for a new social environment that visual artist Constant Nieuwenhuys developed between 1956 and 1974. He looked at the rapidly growing and further developing industrialization and automation, and suspected that in the long run there would no longer be a need for working persons. The working man (homo faber), would make way for the playing man (homo ludens). One would no longer be tied to place and time-bound work, and the artist thought that this person could spend his free time as a nomad in his living-environment. At the time, Constant could not foresee that in the present day, a âworking nomadâ would arise, not tied to a fixed workplace, and often working from home.
For his homo ludens, Constant designed megastructures lifted above the existing world of cities and landscapes, which would form the permanent and continuously changing play space with movable walls, stairs and bridges. A radically different âcityâ, consisting of sectors that matched the psycho-emotional state of its wanderers â the sad sector, the blue sector. The city would no longer know ownership; everyone would be free to use and change the space (Stamps et al., 2016). Although it is a style that Constant also applied in other work, loose from the context of New Babylon, it is striking that the people are depicted as blots, as if they dissolve, disappear, have no face or body shape of their own. It seems as if they are wanderers floating in the remnant carcass of what was once the promising Anthropocene.
Elaborating on Constantâs image, I see the âstalking catsâ, having evolved in time into multicolored and multi-shaped hybrids, half human, half animal, living underneath this utopian city. For a while they are seen as new idols, maybe demigods, as stewards of the last bit of natural life on earth. Until the apocalypse, after which new types of beings will eventually emerge from new DNA and one of the Camille stories (Haraway, 2016) eventually will become true.
âA larva wriggles out of the compost heap with DNA from the monarch butterfly and human DNA, a leftover from the Anthropocene eraâ (after Haraway, 2016).
Conclusion
With the knowledge that arises from the previous chapters, looking at the extreme forms of altering the body and the motives behind these phenomena, I see a deeper meaning lying behind these practices. This goes beyond religious or spiritual motives, marking status or rites of passage. And seems to go beyond individual expression, or the authentic expression of freedom of individuation, as described by Pitts (2003). Pitts asked an extreme body modifier why he started cutting his face. The body modifier answered: âIt is the commitment to being true to myself⊠you canât dress like me, you canât be meâ (Pitts, 2003 p. 171).
I argue that these extreme forms of body modification can be looked at as signals from a society in transition or a society that stands for a rethinking of the relationships between human, animal and machine as provided by Haraway (1991) in her Cyborg Manifesto. In this line, anthropocentric thinking, in which the human is superior to the animal,Until the Middle Ages, the image of man was determined by theocentrism, in which man placed God (or several gods) at the center. After that, the center shifted more and more to man as the center of existence. This is called anthropocentrism. It is the idea that humans are the norm and stand above animals, nature and nonliving nature. In the 19th century, thinking in the direction of greater equality between people and nature took hold. Animal welfare and animal rights were becoming more central. Haraway (2007) philosophizes about considering animals as companions in the further evolution of man.
should no longer be the starting point, as this relation is shifting. Animals and humans are given a more equal status and animals are referred to as ânon-human animalsâ.
The term ânon-human animalâ is used by philosophers such as Donna Haraway, to show that man is also an animal, which is no more special or better than other animals, and, moreover, is an inherently dependent being.
As the discussed examples unveil, the malleability of man seems unlimited, due to the boundless development of biotechnology, information technology and the reallocation of ethics. The lines that once separated humans from animals and objects are becoming increasingly indistinct, giving rise to a union of beings that promises both utopian possibilities and unforeseeable consequences.
Epilogue
In the scorching heat of the summer of 2022, I walked back three times to the Danish Pavilion at the Venice Biennale. The Danish artist Uffe Isolotto made a huge impression on me with his installation We Walked the Earth.
As half a year has passed, my thesis now complete,
The artworkâs meaning has intensified and sweet.
I see manâs ambiguity, in this age of strife,
His schizophrenia, defining this time of life.
Broken pieces of nature, culture, and machine,
Entwined with humans and beasts, a fusion unforeseen.
I feel the pulse of life and death in this embrace,
A dissonance that leaves my spirit in a different space.
The scent of dry manure and untouched tools in sight,
Whispers of secrets, both dark and light,
A shiver down my spine, as an invisible spirit creeps,
he noose of this encounter, around my neck, it seeps.
Art and reality converge, a thought that lingers on,
In a world of constant change, where one becomes the otherâs spawn.
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