The nation state Korea was highly effected and destroyed during the Japanese occupation and both the aftermath of this colonial era (1910-45) and the Korean War (1950). After the war, the South Korean (The Republic of Korea) government implemented a modernization project to for the country and radical policies, dreaming of unification as a means of surviving as a now divided country. At that time, the president, Park Chung-hee expected unification to come with modernization. The road to modernization was to establish economic independence and independence was the first step to unification. He pursued the national reconstruction project with the goal of “relieving the backward country by securing the legitimacy of the development dictatorship through modernization.” Source. Therefore, the project of modernization and the role of dictatorship in Korea are closely connected.
Because of this context, Korea was a rapidly industrializing country in the 1970s. In order to achieve its goals, the state carried out a result-oriented policy and a showing-off – these are policies to instigate without authenticity – policies also for showing to developed countries, including North Korea.
It relates to the establishment of a factory culture (fast-fast culture) represented by productivity and economy. The factory culture can alternatively be described as efficient and clarity. With the keyword ‘clarity,’ it refers to simplifying the aspects that make up society’s entire environment, such as material, environment, and perception. Society is controlled through uniform products and buildings using materials that can be mass-produced.
The factory culture effects the entire society at a very rapid rate. Because there was not enough time for new cultural and social values to be localized, the cultural and social characteristics of South Korea were strangely twisted for a short time, and as a result, people’s perceptions were greatly affected. And while society is rapidly changing like this, industrialization and modernization are used as a tool for the South Korean government to exercise social control.
In this thesis, I investigate the social and cultural background that led to the emergence of factory culture (fast-fast culture) and talk about how that culture influenced people consciously and unconsciously as propaganda to the Korean government.
Last summer, while eating in a Korean restaurant, I felt awkward. The space was open so that one could see it at one glance, and white neon lights were installed at the high ceiling. The clerks were sweating and busy, and the customers were eating ‘hard’ and quick. More, the owner of the place was watching all of this from the counter at the entrance. I suddenly had a deep impression of being inside a certain type of factory, a food factory, and I was one essential part of it. It was reminiscent of Korea’s fast-fast culture(빨리빨리 문화)
‘Routine speediness runs through South Korean society and is especially prevalent in the capital. There is even a term for it: ppalli-ppalli culture. Translating to ‘fast’ or ‘hurry’, ppalli is pronounced with a tensed first consonant, as if snapping the vocal apparatus like a rubber band.
The ppalli-ppalli tendency can be seen in South Korea’s world-leading internet speeds, intensive language classes promising near-immediate results and popular speed-dating events. And just as time-conscious are the glitzy wedding halls that host a succession of hour-long ceremonies all weekend.
Ppalli-ppalli is also the watchword of the thousands of food delivery motorcyclists who bend the rules of traffic – and physics, too, it appears – to deliver their orders post-haste. To compete, McDonald’s, the global leader in fast food, began assembling its own fleets of delivery scooters in South Korea in 2007.’ -BBC, 2018
This is how BBC News described Korea’s ‘the fast-fast culture(빨리빨리 문화)’ I was curious about not only these superficial phenomena, but also the underlying causes behind them.
In my thesis I investigate where and how the fast-fast culture(빨리빨리 문화) began and how it has continued. And by examining the visual environment surrounding the clarity and efficiency represented by the fast-fast culture(빨리빨리 문화), it explores the relationship between modernization and social control in Korean society. In here, fast-fast culture(빨리빨리 문화) refers to a perception that prioritizes improving productivity through competition and thereby maximizing efficiency.
As mentioned in the abstract, Korea was highly effected and destroyed during the Japanese occupation, and both the aftermath of this colonial era and the Korean War. After the war, the Korean government implemented a modernization project and implement radical policies, dreaming of unification as a means of surviving as a now divided country. President Park Chung-hee expected unification to come with modernization. The road to modernization was economic independence and independence was the first step to unification. He pursued the national reconstruction project with the goal of “relieving the backward country by securing the legitimacy of the development dictatorship through modernization.” – encyclopedia of Korean culture development dictatorship: a passive revolutionary system of nationalistic industrialization oppresses and controls civil society and democracy growth, with economic development as the top goal. Under the dictatorship’s leadership.
Therefore, one could argue that the project of modernizing the country is closely connected to the dictatorship in Korea.
The concept of clarity: With ‘clarity’ I refer to what can be interpreted as several meanings. It is a concept that can be replaced with clean, no-frills, simple, easily understandable, monotone, etc. This concept can be understood by examining how a dictatorial government transformed and planted various visual languages to control its society. Society is controlled through uniform products and buildings using materials that can be mass-produced. The government used a black and white logic to spread strategies that help it to maintain its existence. It easily controls its citizens by simplifying the elements that make up the overall environment of society, such as material, environment, and perception, with the keyword ‘clarity’. Clarity was used as a powerful weapon of the dictatorial regime in Korea, and its traces still remain throughout Korean society. through this In any case, they were forced to pick between two possibilities by the government. Do you agree with or disagree with the government’s opinion? Are you on the government’s side or the enemy’s? You are a socialist if you disagree with the government as villain and the internalized ‘clear’ distinction was utilized not just by the government to control citizens, but also by citizens to censor each other.
In Korea, terms and values such as competition, productivity, efficiency, etc. have increasingly become the most important keywords to achieve modernization, and among the existing cultural styles, things that do not correspond to these, i.e., unreasonable, non - objective, and hard to measure (In the western perspective), were considered to be obsolete relics, shameful things, or superstitions that should be erased or hidden. There’s the anti-superstition movement, for example. The anti-superstitious movement actively pushed the prohibition of alcohol and gambling, as well as the abolition of superstitions, in order to “pursue a stable cultural life with spiritual dignity and economic affluence.” As a result, temples were destroyed across the country, in both urban and rural locations. – The Digital Local Culture Encyclopedia of Korea
Korea is currently undergoing modernization, and as a result, folk items that have been passed down through generations are being destroyed. Some of them are being deliberately destroyed, and the preservation of folklore items is a top priority at this time. - Lim Dong-kwon, president of the Folklore Society, 1972 Daily life and culture
Take a look at the record of the Korean Folklore Society conference in 1972, when they discussed [the function of folklore] and [the preservation and transmission of cultural characteristics]. According to them, the Park Chung-hee government used administrative power to forcibly damage and demolish Jangseungs and Seonangdangs across the country under the pretext of dispelling superstition. This was done during the late 1960s and early 1970s execution of the ‘New life project’ and the ‘New village project.’ As a result, the locals reacted with hostility and resistance, and after that, the Ministry of Home Affairs issued a ‘Jangseung Protection Order’ and issued a special protection order for the Jangseung. However, the shrines that enshrine the guardian deities of villages such as Seonangdang had already been “destroyed in about two-thirds of the country”. - Choi Gil-sung, 1974 서낭당: a temple devoted to the village gods
In the process of Korea’s modernization, the traditional culture of Korea, which believes in the gods of various beings, was considered a superstition to be overcome, and cultures considered unscientific disappeared.
Jangseung – namuwiki Seonangdang – namuwiki
Because it was a nation-led development under the government Name of President, the government decided without discussions and a social consensus. As a result, Traditional Korean culture was divided into two categories: those to be preserved and those to be removed, and was either overemphasized or faded away.
In the 1960s and 1970s, Korean society was changing from an agricultural society into an industrial society. At that time, the meaning of factory was not only a production facility that produces goods, but it is also the most important facility for advancing to a developed country, and it is an important means of producing a developed national image by notifying the international community of one’s technological capabilities. It should be recognized as a developed country or a country with development potential. This is because Korea can receive investment from foreign companies or borrow loans from other countries. Factories played a very important role as a driving force in Korea’s modernization.VOX EU Korea History Museum
Electricity was the most urgently needed element to maintain a heavy industry plant in the 1970s. In Korea, which was devastated after the war, electricity supply was not smooth, and as a result, electricity was often cut off. Unstable electricity supply was a major obstacle to the stable operation of the factory. In order to provide stable electricity supply, Korea’s first nuclear power plant was built in 1978. That nuclear power plant was the 21st in the world back then, being one of the largest investment projects in Korea’s construction history. This is an indicator of whether the Korean government considered nuclear technology development and electricity production as important . Since then, Korea currently has built 24 nuclear power plants, thus with this amount of plants the country ranks sixth in the world. IAEA PRIS (23.11.2021) This is a part that shows how consistently Korea is obsessed with electricity supply. from past to present. The most intuitive element to view electricity is lighting. Since the role of lighting in a factory is a matter directly related to work safety, a stable supply of electricity is an issue that is linked to worker safety, productivity, efficiency, and clarity.
‘Of the various factory services which may contribute to the welfare and safety of occupants of workplaces, lighting is of high importance. A report of a five-year study by the Accident Prevention Advisory Unit of the Health and Safety Executive (UK) says that the most safety-conscious companies are those which tend to be commercially successful’ Lyons, Stanley L. Handbook of Industrial Lighting. Kent: Elsevier Science, 2014. Print.
But lighting isn’t just for safety.
‘Imagine you are a young person entering a school. This may be the series of events that unfolds: even before entering, you may be recorded by surveillance cameras that have the ability to zoom in and archive the footage that is taken; you may be required to scan an ID card that retrieves information about you and is able to track your whereabouts through a radio-frequency identification (RFID) system; you may pass through an upright metal detector; or have your body scanned, perhaps your face, iris, or palm, by a device that checks your biometric reading against a database of collected readings. […] The fortification of schools is primarily a business response to safety. Safety has become a commodity that is sold by security professionals whose purpose, after all, is to make money and to create profit for the security companies for which they work. While we may hear that security equipment is used in order to create a “safe environment” or, on the other hand, for “social control,” these claims miss a significant aspect of school fortification: that the installation of security equipment in schools is foremost a corporate transaction led not by people who can guarantee us safety, and not by tyrants imposing social control, but rather by business people who convince us that products they have for sale will give us peace of mind.’ Schools Under Surveillance: Cultures of Control in Public Education. New Brunswick, N.J: Rutgers University Press, 2010. Print.
Just like the Korean government that justified its dictatorship under the pretext of economic development, many factories, schools, hospitals, and prisons with similar characteristics installed lights and constructed an environment adapted to monitor citizens and workers – an environment that could be monitored as such. A common argument to justify these measures was the safety aspect The idea seems to be: where there is light there is no crime. According to the study, there was no evidence of an association between reduced lighting and increased crime. BBC
Artificial light in another sense is a symbol of urbanization and modernization. Still, satellite images taken by NASA are often used as a means of making dramatic comparisons between North and South Korea. If you look at the photo, you can see that Korea is generally shining around major cities. On the other hand, most of North Korea’s territory except Pyongyang is shrouded in darkness. It is used as an image that intuitively represents poverty in North Korea. As such, artificial lighting is still playing a role as a measure of the industrialization and urbanization of a country.
** Satellite image of the Korean Peninsula from NASA
In the 1970s, Korea went through industrialization and modernization, and changes occurred in the materials used. From small objects such as spoons to huge structures.
Changes in kitchenware material
Traditionally, Korea, often used the material wood . Not only because it is easily available, but because it is a cheap resource. Hence, from tableware to building materials, most were made of wood or soil. Metal materials are expensive and difficult to obtain, its processing is also difficult compared to the handling of wood, so it was not suitable for general use by ordinary people. Although it was difficult for ordinary people to use, not all of them did not use metal-based household items. Korean royalty and nobility were often threatened with assassination. One of the types of assassination was lethal feeding. Poison intake is mostly mixed with food during meals. The royal family devised several methods to prevent death from poisoning. First, the maid had to taste the food to be served on the table in advance, and second, silver or brass tableware was used. Most of the poisons used at that time discolor silver due to chemical reactions when it comes into contact with the silver. It could determine whether food is poisonous or not through the discoloration of tableware.Korean Chopsticks Silver and brass tableware became symbols of kitchenware used by the Korean royal family from 18B.C (Baekje Kingdom). The nobility and the rich also began to use metal tableware to show off their wealth.
Although the beginnings of metal kitchenware were silver and brass, the common people could not use such expensive materials. After Korea’s industrialization, stainless steel tableware, a similar material, became popular in Korea because even the poorer population could use it without burden due to its low price. It is sturdy and clean to use. And it shone brightly. Spoons, chopsticks, water cups, soup bowls, and dinner plates were quickly replaced with stainless steel products, and Korea began to sparkle all over the place.
The position of iron in Korea’s industrialization process
This can be seen as reflecting not only the convenience of the material, but also the symbolism of the material and the appearance of praising the metal and it can be further interpreted as being used as a propaganda tool. To find out more about this, it is necessary to talk about how important the development of heavy industry is in Korean society and how it was used for social control. First, Take a look at the video ‘Life of young Koreans in their 20s developing with the First and Second Five-Year Economic Development Plan’ produced in 1968 by the Korean National Film Production. Life of young Koreans in their 20s developing with the 1st and 2nd Five-Year Economic Development Plan, National Film Production Center, 1968. Video.
In the video, a woman is working in a textile factory. she is operating a hydroelectric power plant, red molten iron is flowing from a furnace, and a factory worker is sweating while constructing a building or making a car are repeatedly shown. Smoke is constantly coming out of the chimneys of factories built of cement. A nuclear power plant is under construction. The camera traverses the beautifully manicured park and shows a harmonious family enjoying shopping in a department store, pulling a shopping cart.
Students paint on canvas a university building that is just over ten years old, “designed in the neo-classical style with ancient Greek columns and triangular gable walls.” Students lie on the grass in the garden and read books, and research is conducted in the science lab. Girls practice ballet as a group, and boys practice taekwondo. a Korean form of martial arts, characterized by punching and kicking techniques, with emphasis on head-height kicks, jumping spinning kicks, and fast kicking techniques.
Through this video produced by the Korean government, we can guess what kind of ideal Korean society the Korean government aimed at. The number of scenes related to heavy industry appearing in this propaganda video are an important indicator that can infer how the government was treating heavy industry at the time.
Molten iron is flowing from the furnace.
By inserting and juxtaposing the image of a heavy industry factory among the images that accepted an advanced and high culture which are ballet, department store, students practicing western painting at a university built in a western-style building style, laboratory research, etc. It creates a visual language of Heavy industry as ‘Korea’s future’
The relationship between South Korea’s industrialization and defense products
Modern propaganda used in South Korea in the 1960s and 1970s did not mean that North Korea should be annihilated by force. Jacques Ellul - Propaganda_ the formation of men’s attitudes-Vintage Books (1973). The way Korea pursued was to achieve modernization through national industrialization and to make the country wealthy, thereby securing systemic superiority. Because Korea relied on the United States for most of its defense power. Also South Korea’s wartime operational control was with the United States, it was difficult to overthrow North Korea by force. Also, right after division, from 1950 to the early 1970s, North Korea had superior economic and national defense power over South Korea, so South Korea’s top priority was to develop national defense and economic power in order to prove its ideological superiority. UN There were several reasons behind that goal. First, in the 1970s, the United States reduced military aid and even the size of the US Forces Korea decreased. When Nixon was elected president the biggest issue for the U.S. was how to end the Vietnam War. The war was tearing the country apart and putting a great fiscal burden on the U.S. So Nixon’s campaign pledge was to withdraw troops from Vietnam. The US, in accordance with the Nixon Doctrine, officially notified in July 1970 of its intention to withdraw one of its two Army divisions stationed in Korea. Korea, which has relied on the US military for its defense, needs more independent defense than ever. Second, in 1968, North Korean special forces agents infiltrated South Korea, and there were a shooting and grenade detonation in Seoul. Since then, North Korea has continued to threaten South Korea. Korea’s heavy and chemical industry, which had to continuously manage such real threats, even though Korea was a ceasefire country, developed in close relationship with weapons development. Nuclear power plants were involved in the development of nuclear weapons, and private factories were involved in the manufacture of weapons in case of emergency. In Korea, developed on the basis of this, the defense industry leads to arms exports. In 2019, South Korea ranked eighth among the world’s arms export countries. SIPRI(Stockholm International Peace Research Institute)
This background was possible within the special circumstances of the ceasefire. As a result, the perception that individual rights and diversity can be limited for the public good has become common, and Korean society has become a dehumanized, large, factory-like society. All movements that challenge or resist the fast-fast culture designed under the leadership of the government will be suppressed within the frame of communist. Since then, the fast-fast culture has become an important weapon for the government to achieve social control. By using that weapon, the governemnt could influence and maintain power. In order to strengthen the internal solidarity, it was necessary to creaete and use an external enemy.It is a well known strategy by governments world wide to deflect from interior problems by pointing towards external international problems. The continuous expansion of the defense market constantly reminded Koreans of external enemies and made people understand the tension of a national emergency. ‘We are at war.’ ‘This is the only country in the world divided.’
“For over 60 years, we’ve been suppressing security threats and developing and operating ideal weapon systems in a variety of adverse conditions,” - Minister of Defense. 2017 state council
** Defense size comparison chart - Maeil Business News, 2017
Even to this day, whenever a North Korean military threat occurs, South Korea compares the military power of South Korea and North Korea and exposes them to the mass media.
Every election season, the ruling party would emphasize the dangers of North Korea and the importance of national defense. At the same time, the communist frame was used to attack the opposition. Described as communists trying to sell the country to North Korea. The dichotomous political operation of the communist party if not on my side was very easy to understand and quickly learned. The people no longer had to think deeply and spend time and effort.
Through this process, the government seemed to convey this message to the citizens.
A social consensus through debate and discourse is intentionally omitted because it takes too long to determine what is right or wrong. Democratic and participatory practies take time. An emancipated citizen might not be wanted: Don’t even dare to try to think yourself. Judgment and execution are the roles of the president and the government, who are the rulers of the military, and the people just need to follow along.
In Korea, an emergency situation, the process of slowly forming something and reaching a social consensus sounded like high class problem. Therefore, there are only two options which is easy to choose. Will you be with me or will you be my enemy? Will you become a docile citizen who does not rebel, or a villain who follows evil? Most of all, there were two options, and it seemed clear which one was the right one.
The most tangible results of Korean reconstruction after the war are its architectures, including the high-rise buildings made of concrete. A prefabricated building is a symbol that can visually show off an industrial society that comes with such technological developments, an industrial advancement, and a concentration of wealth. Further, this symbol has the effect of visually showing off and persuading inside and outside the country that the post-war ruins of Korea are being rebuilt. One interesting thing. It is said that the city plan was designed with the role of deterring the movement of North Korean troops by blowing up apartments if the war starts. Maeil Business News 내용. As a result, people’s living space was transformed into a weapon to deter North Korea in case of emergency and the people living in it were dehumanized. Nevertheless, it was effective in resolving the housing problem of the densely populated population, and Because of the symbols of display of high-rise buildings, many apartments are built as a new residential type in Korea. Prefabricated buildings with minimal decoration were able to be built quickly in a short period of time, making Korea urbanize in a short time.
The square concrete-dense buildings all had similar shapes and structures, and it was built with the motto of efficient use of space as the top priority not only for residential spaces, but also for schools, companies, factories and hospitals. This consistent lifestyle also affects the standardization of people’s consciousness. Urbanization in Korea means Korea turning into a single large factory or weapon, and can be read as a symbol of the loss of humanity.
In the 1970s and 1980s, anti-communist films were most actively produced in Korea with the support of the government. However, if there was any possibility of misunderstanding the contents of the film, the film was immediately banned. Misunderstanding here includes portraying North Korea in any way as a human being, South Korean characters passing over to North Korea, sympathizing with North Korea, and so on. North Korea was usually portrayed as a villain, a wolf, and a dark and insidious force.Produced in 1978, the popular anime ‘General Toli’ is the story of a young boy who triumphs over North Korean soldiers who are portrayed as wolves and villains.
In other words, the government actively utilized the film industry as a tool for its propaganda and delivered the message it wanted to convey. Until 1987, at the Daejong Awards, a Korean film awards ceremony, there was a separate category for ‘anti-communist film awards’.
When you went out after watching a movie and walked down the street, you saw anti-communist slogans and anti-communist posters hanging on the street. Not only that, but also enlightenment advertisement signs, propaganda flyers, and so on.
Let’s report it when you see unwholesome flyer! - Unknown,1970’s
Enlightment signage
The motto was to inspire a sense of security that could be loosened by constantly reminding us of the existence of the main hostile North Korean government, such as ‘Let’s beat the Communist Party’ and ‘Let’s smash the North Korean army’. At the same time, it was used as a manipulation tool to threaten the people. Citizens were encouraged to report any suspicious behavior. It made them think that it was patriotic, and furthermore, constantly instilled the impression that it was for themselves(Even as of February 2022, reports were received in Gyeonggi Province for the fact that photos of North Korea Chairman, Kim Il-sung were placed on the street and the police investigated the cause). YTN NEWS it was helped to create a social atmosphere that values the group rather than the individual. In addition, this social atmosphere was mainly used by the government to suppress dissidents. people who were against all policies promoted by the government were identified with socialists who symbolized evil and this process became to affect people’s actions. For example, the act of protesting or forming a union to improve the poor environment in which workers working in industries promoted by the government were regarded as anti-government actions, and this came to be framed as socialists. regardless of whether they are real socialists or not. People became very reluctant to be falsely accused. For this reason, people who have been socialized in Korea regard it as instigation to express an opinion different from others or opposing their superiors, and feel repulsed. People started to censor themselves.
** Combat police suppressing Yonsei University students who protest - Tae-won Jeong, 1980 ** The police were randomly doing spot checks in 1980’s - The Youth Federation for Democratization Movement
The government’s wish to control social interactions social control can be found not only in its anti-communism campaigns but also in other fields. According to the government meeting minutes from 1961 the “Promotion of Family Planning,” and the population expansion was cited as an impediment to economic growth, it suggested the implementation of a population reduction policy to resolve it. According to the documents of the Ministry of Health and Welfare at the time, the government’s population policy was treated as a secondary issue to achieve economic growth rather than focusing on population change itself. This shows that the state’s policies are instrumentalized for the national economic growth, not for the quality of life of individual people, and ironically, in that it has a totalitarian attitude, it can be said that it is in line with North Korea’s attitude toward its people.
The Korean government actively conducted campaigns by using posters as a means of promoting these policies from the 1950s to the 1990s. Although they were produced with contents related to various fields – such as anti-communism, family planning, economic development, environment, and industrial safety – the appearance of the posters did not change significantly over the years. In fact, the layouts are similar in theiruse of colors and sthe imilarity of their contents.
Family Planning Campaign posters ‘Let’s raise only two children without distinguishing between son and daughter’ Korean Family Association, 1970’s Family Planning ‘two are too many’ - Korean Family Association, 1970’s
A poster should be positioned with clearly separated text and pictures, and the slogan should be located mainly at the top and bottom to make it easier to read. Drawings are usually drawn with strong primary colors to make them stand out and be easily understood.
Internalize by reproducing
In addition to visual objects that can be seen on the street, elementary, middle, and high schools in the 70s and 80s promoted the government’s policies through ideological education. In art class, students were asked to draw campaign posters themselves, and regularly held writing contests, poster contests, oratory contests, etc. to instill government policies in the students. It means that most of the middle-aged and elderly people living in Korea have mostly advocated and visualized government policies in their childhood experiences of visual creation.
The posters below are the winners of the poster contest for students in 2007 and 2019.
Even through this, we can see that, despite the changes from the past to the present, visual languages such as similar layouts, colors, shapes, etc., have been handed down over and over again for several decades. Visual language has a continuity from the past to the present, and students internalize the visual language designed by the government by reproducing the learned visual language.
In the 1970s, after the war, Korea developed from the agriculture industry to the heavy industry and proceeded with national reconstruction. For doing that electrical facilities are essential conditions for stably maintaining and operating factories, which are essential in the heavy industry. At the same time, it functions as a means to visually show off urbanization through artificial lighting. Artificial lighting seems to provide safety by brightly removing darkness, but in fact it can be seen as a means of social control. Concrete and steel materials that can be mass-produced, have standardized humans by making life monotonous for Koreans. The Korean government actively used visuals such as movies, animations, posters, etc. to instill their message into the citizens. These visual environments have been continued through reproduction and these elements are indirectly or directly affecting them up to now.
What I am trying to say through this text is not to criticize Korea’s modernization. Although I have no experience in the 1970s, I grew up in a visual environment passed down from the past and I was indirectly influenced by it. I have no objection to using aluminum cups and chopsticks in a restaurant, and I feel comfortable going the supermarket where the checkout proceeds quickly without Smalltalk. However, the purpose is to understand the visual language planted in my body by examining the sense of heterogeneity and curiosity.
Hosford, William F. Iron and Steel. 2014. Internet resource.
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Lord, Arthur R. A Handbook of Reinforced Concrete Building Design in Accordance with the 1928 Joint Standard Building Code. Detroit, Michigan: American Concrete Institute, 1928. Print.
Ellul, Jacques. Propaganda: The Formation of Men’s Attitudes. New York: Vintage Books, 1973. Print.
Lasswell, Harold D. Propaganda Technique in World War I. Cambridge, Mass: M.I.T. Press, 1971. Print.
Palgrave Macmillan. Punishment and Control in Historical Perspective, 2008. Archival material.
Sandy, Isenstadt. Electric Light: an Architectural History, 2019. Print.
Luykx, Aurolyn. The Citizen Factory: Schooling and Cultural Production in Bolivia. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1999. Print.
Lyons, Stanley L. Handbook of Industrial Lighting. Kent: Elsevier Science, 2014. Internet resource.
Foley, Douglas E. Learning Capitalist Culture: Deep in the Heart of Tejas. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2010. Internet resource.
Schools Under Surveillance: Cultures of Control in Public Education. New Brunswick, N.J: Rutgers University Press, 2010. Print.
Special thanks to Thesis Supervisor Prof. Füsun Türetken, Design and cording Prof. Ruben Pater, Thomas Buxo, François Girard Meunier and Martijn de Heer.
Jangseung – namuwiki
Seonangdang – namuwiki
Let’s report it when you see unwholesome flyer! - Unknown,1970’s
Family Planning Campaign posters ‘Let’s raise only two children without distinguishing between son and daughter’ Korean Family Association, 1970’s 
Family Planning ‘two are too many’ - Korean Family Association, 1970’s 
