The Beauty of not
Being Found

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USER AGENT

BROWSER

OS

TOUCH

Abstract

As the internet is more and more surveilled and centralized, its ‘dark’ counterpart, The Dark Web, has become more relevant as a place to connect. Meanwhile, anonymity is often considered as something suspicious. The Dark Web sparks my curiosity. It seals and holds something mystical around itself. Is this because it is harder to access than the 'normal' internet, or maybe because the anonymity of the Dark Web is convenient for criminal activities and I might find myself in a space that is dangerous?

This thesis intends to find out what the potentials are for an anonymous space such as the Dark Web. Why is there a 'dark' version of the web? I wish to explore the Dark Web. First, I wish to contextualize the Dark Web, what is the system behind it, and how does it work. Therefore, I need to go on field research and experience the Dark Web for myself. Additionally, I will end this thesis with a part in which artists have responded on surveillance, being monitored, digital footprints, missing and creating anonymity that form the context of the Dark Web.

Introduction

"The Internet does not exist. Maybe it did exist only a short time ago, but now it only remains as a blur […]" ^[1]

Society has reached a point where it is no longer possible to avoid the internet. The users' body, mind and behaviours are linked to a digital realm with mediation apps, smart TV's and even Wi-Fi connected fridges. Often, we see the internet as a democratic and borderless network, where people can meet and communicate. Yet, we are witnessing a shift where the internet loses its decentralized structure to a central model. Data is stored and managed in the ‘cloud’ which is owned by a small amount of companies. ^[2] With the 'cloud' we have access to our documents, photos and videos from any place at any time. These files are on servers, part of a datacentre located somewhere, where a governments law inevitably applies. However, governmental law enforcements could demand datacentres to hand over data even from outside their own borders. For example, all data that are stored on datacentres of US companies – think about Google or Microsoft – fall under the USA Patriot Act which allows the US government to force those companies to hand over personal user data, even if the datacentres are located outside the States.^[3] As a result, non-US users can be surveilled and monitored by US authorities. What would stop a government from using surveillance to target political opponents, journalists, critics or innocent citizens?

The discourse about anonymity on the internet becomes even more urgent. United Nations Special Rapporteur David Kaye stated: "Encryption and anonymity, today's leading vehicles for online security, provide individuals with a means to protect their privacy, empowering them to browse, read, develop and share opinions and information without interference and enabling [them] the rights to freedom of opinion and expression". ^[4] However, remaining effectively anonymous on the internet for a long time is extremely difficult and requires some knowledge and discipline. You can use fewer and fewer services anonymously. Many platforms already ask for identification – verified profiles are far more interesting to them than anonymous ones. Thereby, websites that offers anonymity, such as 4chan, often portraited by mass media as "the dark corners of the internet" .^[5] A Dutch graphic design duo specialized in speculative design, Metahaven, discussed this in their book ‘Black Transparency’: "Almost all antidotes to global surveillance goes under shades of black". ^[6] In an era of massive surveillance, working with (encrypted) anonymity is often seen as suspicious behaviour. The same anonymity the Dark Web can provide.

FIG 1

A Still from Star Wars Episode IV A New Hope (04:38), 1978, directed by George Lucas. The makers of Star Wars used anonymity as a factor to make the appearance of Darth Vader evil.

For me personally, the Dark Web is nothing more than a myth. An online version of Pandora's box. Metahaven goes on to say; "The 'darknet' or the 'Dark Web' is a term often used for a shady internet underworld that sports illicit black markets[...]". ^[6] However, my interest in the Dark Web focusses less on the unethical activities on the Dark Web. In this research I try to explore the potential of the Dark Web's anonymity in an era where the internet surveillance plays an increasingly important role.

Part One

GATEWAY

In order to get a better view, I decided to divide the internet into three categories. The first part is the so-called Surface Web. The Surface Web is the part of the internet that we can consider as publicly accessible. In order to reach this part, there is no authentication or payment required. All websites are indexed and possible to be found by search engines. Also, it is possible, due to IP addresses, to identify online traffic.
Some websites make use of security systems by using login details, by using authentication methods, such as bank details or social media accounts. The information from the internet in this part is deeply hidden and is therefore called the Deep Web. We cannot access this part of the internet without some form of authentication, nor is it indexed by search engines. Following this definition, academic and medical databases are also examples of the Deep Web. However, this does not mean that the user or the servers themselves are anonymous. Your online footsteps are still clearly visible because you are still logging into a public server.

The last category is the Dark Web. This part is a network consisting of millions of different websites. These websites are only accessible via encrypted tools that make IP addresses no longer readable. ^[7] To use these tools, you need special software. The big difference between the Surface Web and Dark Web is that the Dark Web, through encryption, allows the user to remain fully anonymous. Encryption has been a centuries-old method to 'hide' messages. For example, Julius Caesar used two different alphabets. One regular alphabet, and one with shift in it. Today we call this method of encryption the Caesar Cipher. Spartans also used encryption, but differently; for example, people wrote a message on a parchment piece. It was only legible if you rolled the paper around a stick of the correct diameter. ^[8]This kept the message anonymous to any intermediaries. Anonymity made the Dark Web best known for its trade in forbidden substances. The existence of the Dark Web became publicly known after the most extensive online drug bazaar, The Silk Road, was shut down in 2013. ^[9] Because the Dark Web isn’t indexed and users are anonymous, people often see it as a separate network. In fact, the Dark Web is a part of the internet. Yet, the Dark Web is an open network. An open network means that the anyone can access the Dark Web as long as the user has a connection to a server. It offers a space for people who consider anonymity and privacy important. It is of interest to citizens from dictatorial countries with strict censorship policies, human rights activists and journalists.^[10]

FIG 2

Photo of the Iceberg that sank the Titanic, 1912, by Prinz Adalbert The Iceberg is a common metaphor. The surface Web, or the visible tip is just a small part of the iceberg. The deep Web, is substantially bigger, and Dark Web is even bigger, and darker.

Even though I am a registered member of Instagram, so indirectly Facebook, and I have a Twitter and Google account, I think it is a matter of principle to choose anonymity on the internet. I believe anonymity provides freedom and freedom is one of the fundamental ideas behind the emergence of the internet and the Dark Web. ^[11] The origins of a democratic and free network go way back in time. In the shadow of the moon landing in 1969, people were working on a communication system called ARPANET. ARPANET was an experimental computer network that became the foundation of the internet as we know it today. This network was a system that enabled communication between devices for the first time; ARPANET started as an invention for academia to exchange ideas freely. Due to its success, the US military, which was dealing with the Cold War, also quickly took advantage of it.

As the US government unleashed ARPANET over the years, the researchers, who mainly worked at universities across the country, were given more freedom to try radical experiments. This created baby shoes for illegal transactions. John Markoff explains it his book ‘What the Dormouse Said: How the Sixties Counterculture Shaped the Personal Computer industry'.^[12]

"In 1971 or 1972, Stanford students using ARPANET accounts from Stanford University's Artificial Intelligence Laboratory had a commercial transaction with their Massachusetts Institute of Technology counterparts. Before Amazon, before eBay, e-commerce was a drug deal. The students used the network to quietly control the sale of an indefinite amount of marijuana". ^[13]

This freedom allowed researchers to try daring experiments, such as creating marketplaces for selling contraband goods, which correlates to the Dark Web's fame and myths. In the early 1980s, the founders of ARPANET decided to split from the government body. The splitting led to the emergence of a military branch Creatively called, MILNET. ARPANET continued under the same name and remained a breeding ground for experiments without any control from government agencies and became the basis of what our internet yielded. ^[14] You can see that today the internet is partly based on the idea of ARPANET. For example, our mail system still works with the automated process between two users as it was intended more than 50 years ago.

Since the internet is more and more developed, there has been an increasing call for online privacy. In 2008, an answer came to this growing demand, The TOR Browser (TOR). TOR is the best known and most used tool for entering today's Dark Web. Its origins lie with the United States Department of Defence. In the late 1990s, a research organization called U.S. Naval Research Lab (NRL) developed an anonymized network that uses cryptography. Safety issues made it easy for secret missions to been monitored or taken offline. As a result, the US Department of Defence (US DoD) created a communication system without a central core, much like ARPANET, which would protect against opposition attacks that would attempt to shut down the system simply by destroying the core. ^[14] The US DoD wanted to achieve this with the idea of routing internet traffic through multiple nodes and those are sealed, every step with encryption.^[15] This method got its name from the idea of an onion that has to be peeled before the core is visible, and it is called ‘onion routing’. In early 2000, Roger Dingledine started working on a new NRL routing project together with Paul Syverson. They call this project: TOR, which stood for The Onion Router. Dingledine and Syverson wanted to give it a name to stand out from other onion routing projects popping up elsewhere. This project aimed to find a way to use the internet with as much privacy as possible. In 2004, the project developed the so-called ‘hidden services’. They also started developing bridges to the TOR network to address censorship, such as bypassing government firewalls. TOR began to gain popularity among activists and tech-savvy users interested in privacy, but it the entry barrier was too steep for the less tech-savvy to reach the network yet. To make it easier to access, the TOR-project created the TOR browser in 2008. Nowadays, we can no longer ignore TOR when we talk about the Dark Web, so I downloaded the browser to do field research.

EXPOLRE. PRIVATELY.

Once I opened the TOR browser application, I found a purple Website with the text "Browse Privately. Explore Freely." So, I tried to explore. Privately. Without any idea of using TOR, I tried to put in some terms in the search bar. Nothing happened, unfortunately, but only logical. The Dark Web uses ‘hidden services’, and they wouldn't be ‘hidden’ if they were so easy to access. All Websites on the Dark Web are sealed with encryption, and to enter a website, you need an onion link. TOR does not use ‘dot-org’ or ‘dot-com’ suffixes but ‘dot-onion’. There are several ways to get a hidden service link. My method was making use of the anonymous Web forum 4chan. There I found plenty of different URLs. But this link was the most common:

http://zqktlwi4fecvo6ri.onion/wiki/index.php/Main_Page.

FIG 3.1

A screenshot of the landing page of the TOR Browser.

With this link, I could find my way through the Dark Web, I was told. I copied the URL and pasted it into the address bar of the TOR browser and hit enter. Loading takes longer than usual, but eventually, I ended up on a Website called ‘Hidden Wiki’. This Website consists of many different hyperlinks. The first thing I noticed during the first few minutes on the Dark Web is that it is very limited. The aesthetics lacks some layering. It is mostly done in global HTML structure, with an H1 header and text in Arial or Times New Roman; This is partly due to the limiting consequences of using encryption. For example, it does support any additional scripts such as JavaScript. At first glance, navigating the Dark Web is like unpacking a package. Without knowing what to expect, you are constantly clicking on various hyperlinks, which act as a kind of gateway to new information. Yet, without all the limitation, TOR works the same as other browsers.

FIG 3.2

A screenshot of the landing page of the hidden wiki.

THE SHAPE.

Following the idea of constantly ongoing gateways we can talk about a network. However, a network is a very broad concept. A network could be physical or non-physical. To define a network, Sociologist Manuel Castells gives a clear definition in his text ‘The network society: a cross-cultural perspective’: "A network is a set of interconnected nodes. A node is the point where the curve intersects itself". ^[16]

The whole internet infrastructure consists out of nodes. The nodes are independent servers that contain information and are connected by the internet. Node servers each contain similar programming, making none of them strictly fundamental to the operation of the network. They can generally be added and removed without disrupting the functionality of the internet at all. Each node connects to every other node, shaping a web without any central structure. There is neither a start, nor an end. This characteristic follows to the rhizome concept of Deleuze and Guattari. In the rhizome, as well as the internet, there is no central structure, but an enormous number of different nodes that connect to each other. In the book ‘A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia’, Deleuze and Guatarri wrote:"Unlike trees or their roots, the rhizome connects one point to every other point, and its properties are not necessarily linked to properties of the same nature". ^[17]

These connections, in digital terms, are the hyperlinks. The type of data doesn't influence the relation between nodes. This makes every connection possible. Unlike a network with the shape of a tree, which always starts with the root and regardless of the size of the tree always ends at the last branch, a rhizome is infinite. A rhizome network does not have a finale stage where it will be saturated or done. If one node is destroyed; it will be replaced by a new one. A rhizome has only stages of appearance. This fact contributes to the next characteristic of the Dark Web; an endpoint will never be reached.

FIG 4

Modular Synth Setup of electronic music artist Sam Sheppard, 25 December 2019, by Future. Modular Synths are rhizomes. A rhizome is a non-hierarchical method of organization where every point is connected to every other point. A modular board works the same, every node is able to connect with cables, while it's endlessly expandable with other modular boards.

However, this rhizome nature makes the Dark Web vulnerable. The Dark Web drives on the values of freedom and privacy. The use of encryption tools like TOR allows users to browse without any interference from third parties. It can only encrypt data inside its own network. Yet, a rhizome-like network breaks the limits of a framed space and opens up new horizons. A node can easily be replaced by a new one which can infect the anonymity of the user. A new node can exit the encrypted network. That's why Dark Web needed a ruleset. In fact, rules counteract the concept of a rhizome. Deleuze talk about limitations and thresholds in a rhizome network. The limits being the outer limit of network’s ability, the threshold being the point where it disintegrates. ^[18] In case of the Dark Web the limits are the full supported capacity of the network. For example, the Dark Web capacity stops at the point a server has scripts installed that will save the users browsing data or server location. The threshold being the point the user goes beyond the 'borders' of the Dark Web. For instance, by signing in on Facebook with your personal credentials, the user passes the threshold of anonymity and crosses into the Deep Web. The Dark Web only retains the ability of providing anonymity if the users stay in the frameset of those limits and thresholds.

Part Two

TAKING BACK THE INTERNET

As I mentioned before, encryption provides a tool and opportunities for people who see great importance in anonymity and privacy. The potential the Dark Web offers makes it attractive to whistle-blowers and political dissidents who do not have the opportunity to express themselves freely in areas with censorship policies. During an interview with Hans Ulrich Obrist, Julian Assange said that he used cryptography to protect human rights. ^[19] During the Arab Spring of 2010, TOR was used as one of the essential hubs for information sharing, following governmental shutdowns of social media channels and other online platforms. The authorities in Bahrain even detained people who moderated forums in which internet users could discuss the ongoing events. The Dark Web became a safe online environment for protesters and activists. ^[20]

FIG 5

A poster placed on a lamp post in Cairo calls for the return of the internet, 30 May 2011, Numerama.

One of the best-known users of TOR and the Dark Web is Edward Snowden. Snowden is known for his bravely whistleblowing for mass control and surveillance by the US government. By disclosing this classified information, he informed internet users about government privacy violations. It was a wake-up call for people to understand the importance for reclaiming their privacy on the internet. ^[21] In his book ‘Permanent Record’, Snowden wrote: "For me personally, TOR was a life changer, bringing me back to the internet of my childhood by giving me just the slightest taste of freedom from being observed". ^[22] In an interview with the TOR Project blog, he continues:"TOR is a critical technology, not just in terms of privacy protection, but in defence of our publication right - our ability to route around censorship and ensure that when people speak, their voices can be heard. The design of the Tor system is structured in such a way that even if the US Government wanted to subvert it, it couldn't because it's a decentralized authority". ^[23]

FIG 6

Screenshot of Edward Snowden's reply tweet about the difference between using a VPN and TOR.

Unfortunately, this non-surveilled network does not only offer space for people with good intentions. Criminals, hackers, drug dealers, and even pedophiles see anonymity as an opportunity to buy and sell their goods and services. Webshops such as The Silk Road, AlphaBay and Hansa have become immensely popular over the years as they allow the trade of dubious goods such as drugs, guns, stolen credit card information and others. Most of those websites use the virtual currency Bitcoin, an increasingly popular decentralized and anonymous payment system. ^[24]

Dark Web isn’t a place completely invisible to of law enforcement. According to research by the Dutch police, an estimated 57% of all active domains are involved in illegal activities. ^[25] Some of these websites have already been shut down. Yet, again they will be rehosted under a new server if there are no legal consequences. According to an investigation by Gwern Branwen, more than 300 Dark Web-affiliated criminals have been arrested in the space of 4 years. Nevertheless, we should consider this number as low estimate. Branwen went on: "[…] because it only includes those arrests specifically related to the Dark Web markets and which are publicly known". ^[26]

THE INTERNET GOES DARK

Remember the Arab Spring in 2010, when the people of Egypt, Libya, and Syria witnessed the complete shutdown of the internet as their governments tried to quell protests. In Syria, the regime even hunted down bloggers, as result that the Dark Web became one of the main tools during the uprisings. ^[27] During the Arab Spring, protesters used Facebook to share information and Skype to avoid phone tapping. Governments were strict when it came to censorship and blockades, and even decided to shut down the entire internet for a while.

To help protesters, a group called The Hacktivists of Telecomix decided to build a dial-up connection in the south of Europe. This group of hacktivists then faxed the dial-in numbers to all the Egyptian offices, universities, and coffee shops they could find. ^[28] In this way, people in Egypt gained access to an uncensored network, and the Dark Web became a tool for providing information about upcoming protests and more.

Over the years, the number of attacks on censorship and privacy via the internet has increased. Countries worldwide attempt to silence the opposition by limiting access to the internet, and by reducing the personal privacy of civilians. In 2017, the Turkish authorities blocked several language versions of Wikipedia. ^[29] part of a Venezuelan authoritarian regime's intervention to restrict communication between online protesters, Websites like YouTube, Bing, Periscope, and Google's chat services went down in 2019. ^[30]

FIG 7

Protesters after the internet was shut down in Venezuela, 2019, Nyunt Win

However, blocking information isn’t the only method to limit peoples' online freedom. Fake news against movements and individuals is a common way to withhold the truth. The TOR project partnered up with the Bertha Foundation, a foundation supporting activists, storytellers, and lawyers committed to social and economic justice and human rights. Together they work to strengthen and promote digital security and freedom among individuals and organizations in the Amazon region of Brazil. They work there to solve (technological) challenges, such as limited internet access or false information. They create new ways for people to get access to the internet and how to use the TOR as a tool to educate themselves about preserving the Amazon region. ^[31]

Although criminals use the Dark Web to hide, the Dark Web isn’t ‘dark’ because it is bad; it's dark because it's the only place on the internet that offers a little privacy. Again, As Metahaven said, "All antidotes to global surveillance goes under shades of black". ^[6] Its not only a tool to play hide and seek with the authorities, it also helps people accessing and using the internet as it should be; to access information from multiple directions and not as a one-way information hub based on the ideologies of a government or group.

Part Three

'BEING INVISIBLE CAN BE DEADLY.'

In the essay ‘The Spam of the Earth: Withdrawal from Representation’ Hito Steyerl, video artist and writer, criticizes the passive behaviour of people to avoid surveillance by technology from governments and companies in public spaces. “Today exposure has become more of a threat than a privilege”. ^[32]

In her video work ‘How Not to Be Seen a fucking didactic Educational.MOV file’, she refers to an earlier work by Monthy Python of the same title. She shows five different lessons, often depicted in a clever, humorous, and ironic way. In each lesson, an individual can learn to avoid being watched by digital technology. I would like to take you to the fourth lesson, ‘Lesson IV: How to be Invisible by Disappearing’. With a three-dimensional environment tour, the video takes you through computer-rendered spaces like hotels, resorts, and malls. The voice-over is offered with a describing overview: "Living in a gated community; living in a military zone; being in an airport, factory, or museum". ^[33] and "surfing the Dark Web; being a dead pixel; being a Wi-Fi signal moving through human bodies; being undocumented or poor; being spam caught by a filter; being a disappeared person as an enemy of the state". ^[33]

Do you see the relationship I'm making here with the Dark Web? Let me explain where I see the correlation: Using a browser like TOR, the users employ techniques to avoid digital surveillance from institutions like governments or big tech companies. It's not just an incognito button on your Chrome browser, but you have to invest time in it; you have to learn how to use it. Follow the steps, and you will become invisible.

FIG 8

A still from "Didactic Educational.MOV File" a video by Hito Steyerl

The question is then: Why do we want to be invisible? In the Monty Python movie, I referenced above, Mrs. B. J. Smegma isn’t seen, and the moment she isn’t spotted, she is safe. But as soon as she shows up, she’s been destroyed by an explosion. Should we take this as a metaphor? If we show ourselves, can it work against us? Maybe whistle-blowers have to be worried about being monitored or found, but does this also apply to a "normal" internet user? Hito said in an interview with Tate Gallery: “The situation most people face is that they are visible all the time to certain modes of capture. That's unfortunate, I think because people might want to escape from this excessive amount of — you know — constant surveillance. On the other hand, being invisible can be deadly". ^[34]

Being fully anonymous and invisible isn't always relevant for most people. However, anonymity isn't only an act of counter-surveillance. Being able to be anonymous online is also important for free self-development. For example, young people who have doubts about their sexual orientation must be able to search for information anonymously and have a conversation without leaving any traces.

Conclusion

THE INTERNET IS FULL OF DEAD PIXELS.

The internet is relatively new, and its influence is multiplying at an incredibly fast rate. Due to these rapid developments, we also see changes in the ideology of the internet’s purpose. Where the internet was intended as a place for the free exchange of ideas; we see more and more frameworks are emerging on the Surface Web. The growing control on the Surface Web increases the need for privacy and anonymity on the internet. The Dark Web partly fulfils this requirement, only it is seen as a mythical and obscure place that is difficult to access.

The Dark Web is a rhizome network that will never be done or completed, it is continuously changing. The possibility of adapting in a small amount of time makes it possible that if someone takes down a website, it is easy to reposition elsewhere in the non-hierarchic network. However, this should be done in a within the borders of an encrypted network. Otherwise it will infect the potential anonymity of the Dark Web

The internet plays an increasingly important role in contemporary politics. The Dark Web can offer political protection, freedom of speech, and access to information obscured by authorities. Using an encrypted connection, the Dark Web has become an essential medium for journalists, activists, and political dissidents. But it is also an important tool for people who do not have direct access to the internet. For example, it can be used as a tool for places with little or no internet reach, or areas affected by war or disasters by using an independent server.

Currently, research shows that the Dark Web is mostly used by criminals, but its relevance to the world of cybercrime is greatly exaggerated. Looking beyond the panic-mongering, the Dark Web is a hopeful medium. In essence, it is the internet as it was intended more than 50 years ago. People can freely exchange ideas without fear of censorship. Anonymity isn't just a tool for countering surveillance. It's a tool for self-exploration. It helps to get access for information for personal questions without leaving any traces.

If we look at the overall picture, we see that the implementation of the Dark Web offers many possibilities for society in general. The internet of today is a screen full of dead pixels, causing that you to miss essential information. The Dark Web makes these pixels come back to life. Especially as governments and technology companies continue to darken and censor the Surface Web, the ‘dark’ counterpart becomes relevant as a place to discuss and connect. I think the resistance should not be aimed at the technology but at the people who abuse it. We must not let the myth of the Dark Web ruin the beauty of not being found.

Glossary

4chan
Influential Surface Web message board where users all post under the name ‘Anonymous’.

Dark Web aka darknet
There is often confusion about the term Dark Web. For example, people used to call it darknet. It's not wrong but darknet is just another name for the Dark Web. The most official authorities are used to called it Dark Web.

IP aka Internet Protocol
Think of your IP address as your home address, it identifies your device when you are online. However, it depends on which connection you have. Your home internet has another IP then the free WIFI of your favourite coffee shop.

TOR aka The Onion Router
TOR, which stands for The Onion Router, is a browser that allows you to search the internet anonymously. It is also a browser that people often use to access and search the Dark Web. This browser allows you to browse to sites with the dot-onion suffix.

Node
A node in a computer network is a server. Some examples of nodes are computers, laptops and routers. On the Dark Web every node is end-to-end encrypted.

Hidden Service
The servers configured to only to receive incoming connections through Tor are called hidden services. Rather than revealing a server's IP address, a hidden service can be accessed via the onion address.

Global HTML structure A HTML code exists out of
1. a line containing HTML information,
2. a header section separated by a head element
3. a body, which contains the websites content.

Bitcoin (crypto currency)
A payment system that is anonymous by using encryption. Very popular currency on (online)black markets.

Hacktivists:
A hacktivist is a person who' is using his or hers technological knowledge and the internet as an act of protest or resistance.

Incognito:
In fact, Incognito is a synonym for anonymity. In internet term incognito is seen as a feature in browsers that the browser does not store your search and navigation history. However, which pages you visit is still trackable via your IP address. So, you are not completely anoymous.

Text by Ralph Bruens

Koninklijke Academie van Beeldende Kunsten –
The Hague (KABK)
January 2021, Tilburg/The Hague, NL

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BOOKS

[ ] Bridle, James, New Dark Age, Verso, 2018.
[ ] Ceruzzi, Paul E. A History of Modern Computing, MIT Press, 2003.
[ ] Christin, Nicolas. Traveling the Silk Road: A Measurement of a Large Anonymous Online Marketplace. Defense Technical Information Center, 2012.
[ ] Deleuze, Gilles, and Félix Guattari. A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia. University of Minnesota Press, 1987.
[ ] E-flux-Journal, The Internet Does Not Exist, Sternberg Press, 2015.
[ ] Markoff, John. What the Dormouse Said: How the Sixties Counterculture Shaped the Personal Computer industry. Penguin Group, 2005.
[ ] Snowden, Edward. Permanent Record. MacMillan, 2019.
[ ] Steyerl, Hito. The Wretched of the Screen, Sternberg Press 2012.
[ ] van der Velden, Daniel and Vinca Kruk. Black Transparency: The Right to Know in the Age of Mass Surveillance. Sternberg Press, 2016.

ARTICLES AND BLOG POSTS

[ ] Asokan, Shyamantha. "The 'Hacktivists' of Telecomix Lend a Hand to the Arab Spring." The Washington Post, 6 Dec. 2011, www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/style/the-hacktivists-of-telecomix-lend-a-hand-to-the-arab-spring/2011/12/05/gIQAAosraO_story.html.
[ ] Cox, Joseph. "The Dark Web as You Know It Is a Myth." Wired, Conde Nast, 18 Jun. 2016, www.wired.com/2015/06/dark-Web-know-myth/.
[ ] Greenberg, Andy. "Hacker Lexicon: What Is the Dark Web?" Wired, Conde Nast, 20 Jul. 2017, www.wired.com/2014/11/hacker-lexicon-whats-dark-Web.
[ ] Harwell, Drew, and Mariana Zuñiga. "Social Media Remains Key to Venezuela's Opposition, despite Efforts to Block It." The Washington Post, 1 May 2019, www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2019/04/30/social-media-remains-key-venezuelas-opposition-despite-efforts-block-it/.
[ ] Holmes, Aaron. "The Dark Web Turns 20 This Month. From Black Market Hotspots to Facilitating the Arab Spring, Here's How It Changed the World." Business Insider Nederland, 21 Mar. 2020, www.businessinsider.nl/dark-Web-changed-the-world-black-markets-arab-spring-2020-3?international=true.
[ ] Isabela. "Thank You, Edward Snowden", The TOR Project Blog, 25 Dec. 2019, blog.torproject.org/thank-you-edward-snowden-tor
[ ] Nah. "Digital Security Tools for Human Rights Defenders." The TOR Project Blog, 11 Nov. 2020, blog.torproject.org/hrd-amazon-training.
[ ] Pagliery, Jose. "FBI Shuts down Online Drug Market Silk Road FBI Busts Black Market Bazaar Silkroad, Arrests Its Alleged Mastermind." CNN, money.cnn.com/2013/10/02/technology/silk-road-shut-down, 2 Oct. 2013.
[ ] Pater, Ruben. "Untold Story 9/23." Untold Stories, 2014, www.untold-stories.net/?p=Puzzled-by-Espionage.
[ ] Perry, Mike. "This Is What a Tor Supporter Looks Like: Edward Snowden." The TOR Project Blog, 30 Dec. 2015, blog.torproject.org/what-tor-supporter-looks edward-snowden.
[ ] “Politie Zet Cybervrijwilligers in Op Het Dark Web.” Nationale Politie, 5 Dec. 2018, www.politie.nl/nieuws/2018/december/4/politie-zet-cybervrijwilligers-in.html.
[ ] Sangers, Ivy. "Wat Is Het Dark Web?", NPO Focus, npofocus.nl/artikel/7642/wat-is-het-dark-Web.
[ ] Talbot, David. "Dissent Made Safer." MIT Technology Review, 2 Apr. 2020, www.technologyreview.com/2009/04/21/213606/dissent-made-safer-2.

FILMS

[ ] "Hito Steyerl – 'Being Invisible Can Be Deadly' | TateShots" YouTube, uploaded by Tate, 17 May 2016, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kKAKgrZZ_ww&feature=emb_logo.
[ ] Steyerl, Hito. "How Not to Be Seen: A Fucking Didactic Educational .MOV File.", YouTube, uploaded by Lekelly99, 13 Sep. 2017, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LE3RlrVEyuo.

I would like to mention Fusun Turetken for her superb supervising and mental support during the writing proces and a special thanks to Stephen Bruens, Brigit van Eijk and my parents Miranda Heus and Con Bruens for their knowledge, great support and encouragements that gave me confidence.

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33 Steyerl, Hito. “How Not to Be Seen: A Fucking Didactic Educational .MOV File.”, YouTube, uploaded by Lekelly99, 13 Sep. 2017, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LE3RlrVEyuo. Accessed 29 May. 2020. ↩
34 “Hito Steyerl – ‘Being Invisible Can Be Deadly’ | TateShots” YouTube, uploaded by Tate, 17 May 2016, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kKAKgrZZ_ww&feature=emb_logo. Accessed 2 Sep. 2020. ↩

The Beauty of not Being Found

The Beauty of not
Being Found